How can best principles from religion guide our daily business?
Hindu Principles and Practices,
Chapters 17 - 19 : Practicalities.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Chapter 17. CASTE
Chapter 18. RESPECT FOR OTHER RELIGIONS
Chapter 19. FAITH AND BELIEF IN HINDUISM
CHAPTER 17, CASTE, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
Summary.
Caste is a Portugese word that confuses a spiritual concept with a social hierarchy that is not part of Hindu teachings. Hindu scriptures categorize people by different temperaments – known as varna-- and prescribe special duties for those in each varna. Persons who are
These classifications by varna were not hereditary. In contrast, the social phenomenon known as jati meant that children generally took on the professions of their parents forming a rigid hierarchy that was hereditary. The combination of varna and jati, came to be known as the caste system. The oppressive practices based on caste were not part of the scriptural classification into varnas; they were an outgrowth of the rigid social classification by jati.
What relation does the caste system have to Hinduism? Answering this question requires understanding the distinction between the religious dimension and the socio-cultural dimensions of the practice of Hinduism in India.
The word ‘casta,’ meaning ‘race’ or ‘breed’ was used by the Portugese to describe the social hierarchies they found in India in the 15th century. In doing so they fused two separate concepts: varna that has a scriptural foundation; and jati that defines community. The consequences of this confusion have been profound; and made worse by social and political influences in recent centuries. Hindu scriptures use the word Varna to describe a way of understanding the diversity of classes and human temperaments in all human societies.
In any society there are some persons who are intellectuals; others are focused on exercising power and leadership; others are engaged in productive occupations and amassing wealth; and many have no special calling, content to function as workers and followers in society. Based on these four temperaments, Hindu scriptures assign tasks and responsibilities to each varna so that all people contribute to society in ways for which they are best qualified:
Which of these human tendencies we are born with is the result of how we lived our past lives: what qualities we endeavored to cultivate and the attitudes that we brought to our work. Recognizing this as a source of diversity among human beings, our scriptures give us all a two-
fold message.
First, discharge the duties and functions that accrue naturally to us in our lives -- diligently and in a spirit of dedication to God. Second, do our best to cultivate nobler qualities that refine our temperament in this and in future lives. Thus, whatever our particular temperament or social status in this life, we each have the opportunity to evolve spiritually toward the ultimate goal of liberation from the cycle of births and deaths.
Scriptures emphasize that we do not inherit our varna from our parents. They reflect our inherent qualities, not our parentage. Nor is there an implied social hierarchy. Those in each varna contribute to the betterment of society in their own ways; and spiritual rewards come to those who best fulfill their own obligations as defined by their varna. In modern discourse, this fourfold classification of human temperaments is mistakenly referred to as the ‘caste system.’
The social hierarchy understood by the term ‘caste’ is better described by the term jati, which means communities. There are several thousand jati’s prevalent in India, each with its own religious and social practices and bound by numerous conventions governing their interactions and perceived hierarchies. Confusing the concepts of varna and jati has led to the mistaken conclusion that the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion. This is what has been misleadingly taught to generations of school children in USA. The reality is that varna is a feature of the religion and jati is a feature of society, with no basis in scripture.
Jati is inherited; varna is not. Being a Brahmana by varna requires the cultivation of qualities that characterize this varna; and being born of Brahmana parents is neither necessary nor sufficient to be a Brahmana.
Jati defines occupation, similar to the prevalence of guilds in medieval Europe; varna defines personal temperament. Traditionally, the mapping of the thousands of jatis into the four varnas changed over time. While Brahmanas were the privileged class in the performance of rituals and in educational attainment, this privileged status did not extend to other aspects of social power, wealth or influence.
Even in the religious context, some of the greatest saints and teachers in the Hindu tradition were not born of Brahmana parents. There are numerous examples, including the sage Vyasa who is the author of numerous revered spiritual texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the sage Valmiki who is the author of the Ramayana, the most widely known religious story in India. Even the famous Gayatri Mantra, one of the holiest in the Hindu tradition was revealed to the sage Visvamitra who was not born of Brahmana parentage.
But over history, several distortions emerged that led to the practice of the ‘caste system’ as we know it today: the mapping of varna into jati became more rigid; caste became an inherited attribute that gave rise to a rigid social hierarchy; and dominant castes oppressed the weak.
Jati’s that were engaged in “unclean” occupations such as scavenging or animal slaughter were treated as “outcastes”, (since variously known as “untouchables, “harijans” [people of God] or “Dalit”), a category that has no place in the Hindu scriptures. Caste distinctions became a social curse and the source of much suffering. It is important to recall that odious practices based on caste were not part of the scriptural classification into varnas; they were an outgrowth of the
rigid classification by jati .
That jati is a social, not religious, phenomena is further evidenced by the fact that caste discrimination is common in India among Christians, Muslims and Sikhs as well, although these religions officially reject caste distinctions. Caste discrimination and oppression violate a fundamental principle in Hindu philosophy that we should recognize the common divinity in all beings and treat them as we would treat ourselves. The political Constitution of independent India outlaws discrimination by caste. The communities that were classified as outcastes were offered special privileges under official programs of affirmative action in education and employment. The caste system as currently practiced has been roundly condemned by Hindu religious leaders, in the tradition of social reform movements in Hinduism over several centuries. With improved status and opportunity, some Dalits have become very prosperous. With democratic elections, castes that are more numerous have gained greatly in political influence.
However, exploitation and poverty among the lower castes undoubtedly continues to be a major social problem in India. In conclusion, the caste system is a compound of religious and social factors: social hierarchy and attendant oppression has been superimposed on a classification system that is offered in Hindu scriptures as a way of understanding human diversity and defining paths for spiritual evolution. It is seriously misleading to claim that the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion. The caste system, which is fundamentally different from the varna system that is found in the Hindu scriptures, is undoubtedly a serious social evil. Laws and regulations in India are in place to remedy centuries of abuse of the lower castes. Hindu religious leaders remain active in working against caste discrimination. There is evidence of considerable progress but the lower castes continue to face serious problems.
Note: Further information and copious references on this subject may be found at: 1.“Hinduism: Not cast in caste: Seeking an end to Caste - based discrimination”, published by the Hindu American Foundation, 2011. Downloadable at www.hafsite.org and
“The Caste System” by Dr. Raj Pandit Sharma, Hindu Council, UK, Feb 20008.
Downloadable at
http://www.hinducounciluk.org/reports/333-the-caste-system
Appendix : Excerpts from Hindu Scriptures.
Those who claim that the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion cite, and misinterpret, the following texts:
Verse 1. “The fourfold order (of varnas) was created by Me (the Supreme Being) according to the divisions of guna (quality) and karma (work),” Bhagavad Gita 4. 13.
This verse is misinterpreted to claim that the caste system is part of the basic design of Hinduism. But note that the verse is about varna, not caste. The emphasis is on guna (aptitude) and karma (function) and not jati (birth). The varna or the order to which we belong is independent of sex, birth or reeding.” (76)
Verse 2. “Of Brahmanas, of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas and also of Sudras…the activities are distinguished, in accordance with the qualities born of their nature,” Bhagavad Gita 18. 41.
This verse is misinterpreted to mean that Hinduism locks each person into his/her caste by birth. However, what this verse points out is the need for each of us to be comfortable with the qualities with which we are born. “Each individual has his inborn nature, and to make it effective in his life is his duty….So long as our work is done in accordance with our nature, we are righteous, and if we dedicate it to God, our work becomes a means of spiritual perfection.” (77)
Verse 3. The purusha Sukta is a famous hymn in the Vedas that describes the whole universe as emanating from the body of the Cosmic Person (Purusha). Some excerpts :
The Purusha, with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand legs, pervades all the Universe….The entire universe of happenings and creatures constitute but a quarter of Him. The remaining three quarters of His Glory consists of the immutable Consciousness….He pervades all beings that eat and things that never eat. From that yajna came horses and all creatures with two rows of teeth…cows, sheep and goats. From the face of the Purusha were born the Brahmanas, from His arms the Kshatriyas, from His thighs the Vaishyas and from His feet the Sudras. From the Purusha’s mind came the moon, from His eyes the sun, from His mouth Indra and fire, and from His breath came vital air. From the Purusha’s navel emerged ‘inner space’ and from His head ‘outer space’; from His feet the earth and from His ears the ‘directions’. Thus the worlds came into creation….” Rig Veda 10.90.1-16; Yajur Veda 31.1-16.
The reference to the four varnas emerging respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet is misinterpreted to indicate a hierarchy and a license for the Brahmanas to oppress the Sudras. The purport of this hymn is different. Just as the head, hands, thighs or feet alone can never be the whole person and every part.
References.
76) The Bhagavad Gita, by S. Radhakrishnan, Unwin Paperbacks; page 160
77) Op cit. page 364
78) The Universal Person, by Swami Chinmayananda, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1991; page 44.
CHAPTER 18, RESPECT FOR OTHER RELIGIONS, by DR. D.C. RAO.
Respect for other religions is part of the Hindu fabric. Hindus naturally accept the validity of the spiritual paths defined by other religions and have no hesitation in participating in worship with followers of other religions. The primary source of this intrinsic respect for other religions is in the core philosophy of Hindu scriptures: that the Supreme Divine Truth is beyond human comprehension. Anyone who thinks he “understands” this Truth, doesn’t (79).
The essence of spirituality in Hinduism is seeking better understanding of the Truth about our own true nature, our relationship with each other, and with the Divine Source of all being. As each religion is capable of casting some light on this goal, Hindus treat them all with respect and are ready to learn from them. Even within Hinduism, different philosophical traditions co-exist and are vigorously debated, creating a willingness to engage respectfully with other viewpoints. Hindus are not out to defend a doctrine and, therefore, do not feel threatened by the ideas of other religions. Another fundamental feature of Hindu philosophy is the belief that Divine Consciousness is all- pervasive, present in all beings. The Bhagavad Gita teaches that God does not favor or reject any being. (80)
The idea that any being may be “doomed” is alien to this philosophy. Every human being is believed to be capable of evolving spiritually and God accepts all forms of spiritual practice provided only that it is offered with devotion. (81)
Indeed, practitioners are cautioned not to disturb the equilibrium of those who are less spiritually evolved but rather to encourage them in maintaining their practice. (82)
There is a great variety of spiritual paths within Hinduism. Recognizing that spiritual seekers differ greatly in personal temperament, physical and mental abilities and preferences, scriptures offer a variety of spiritual practices suited to different seekers. Thus, Hindus are accustomed to seeing a variety of practices even within their own families and this diversity is embraced. Some visit temples regularly and frequently, others do not. Some engage in formal worship at home, others are more casual about it. Some fast, others don’t. It is natural, therefore, to refrain from being critical of the practices followed by other religions.
The readiness to embrace diversity is seen also in the concept of “God”. There are those who worship the Divine as abstract Consciousness while most Hindus express their devotion to particular manifestations of Consciousness as a personal God.
Hindus believe that God has (60)
appeared in a great variety of forms. They cultivate devotion to God by developing a close personal relationship with a “chosen” form of God through worship of an image, recounting stories and constant remembrance of God. Within a family, preferences might vary and a typical family altar would contain images of several different forms of God. The different images are not seen as different Gods, or as competing forms of God but rather as diverse manifestations of the One Supreme Being.
Thus Hindus recoil from the proposition that there is only one legitimate form of God, rendering the worship of other forms as somehow wrong or inferior. They view the Supreme Reality as being beyond all description while yet open to being described in many different ways. Descriptions offered by other religions are thus naturally deserving of respect. This expansive view of the nature of Divinity has led to a long history of Hinduism co-existing with other religions in India. (83)
While there were instances in early years of violence between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, these conflicts have long been resolved. For about 800 years since the 12th CE, India was ruled by non-Hindus — first Muslim and then Christian — until Independence in 1947. Tensions arising from this period continue to reverberate in India today. Throughout Indian history, Hindus have not embarked on wars to subdue other religions.
Since independence, India has been governed under a secular Constitution that guarantees the rights of minorities to freely worship and follow their faith.
Buddhism originated in India in the 5th BCE. Siddhartha was enlightened at age 35 and preached extensively in India as the Buddha for 45 years until he died a natural death at the age of about 80 years. Buddhism remained a dominant religion in India for about a thousand years, during which time it spread through most of Asia. Hindus still worship Buddha as one of the major incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Although concepts of God differ greatly, Hinduism and Buddhism share much of their philosophy, ethics and spiritual practices, especially in the field of Tantra. Hinduism adopted from Buddhism the concept of monastic orders to promote scriptural study and practice.
Followers of the Dalai Lama and other Tibetan Buddhist leaders have had shelter and support in India since 1959.
Jainism predates Buddhism and has coexisted with Hinduism since ancient times. Its followers were known first as Sramans, then as Nirgranthis and, after Lord Mahavira who preached in India slightly earlier than Buddha, as Jains. The first Jain Tirthankar, or teacher, has a prominent place in Hindu scriptures. Despite major theological differences between Hinduism and Jainism, worship practices in the two traditions are very similar although specific rituals differ. Many families practice both Jainism and Hinduism and there are temples that serve both religions. The cultures are so intertwined that it is hard to identify boundaries.
Sikhism was founded in Punjab, India, by Guru Nanak at a time when Muslims ruled over most of India and there was a strong wave of Hindu saints who emphasized a devotional approach to spirituality. There are strong similarities and differences between Hinduism and Sikhism in terms (83)
Culturally, however, there has been a very close affinity among Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs. When the Sikhs fought the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17th CE to defend Hindus’ religious freedom, the bonds between Hindus and Sikhs were strengthened. It became common in Punjabi Hindu families for the eldest son to practice Sikhism and Hindu families often prayed at Sikh
Gurudwaras. Sikh discontent in recent decades reflected political issues rather than any form of religious discrimination.
In addition to the religions born in India, India has provided a home for followers of other world religions too. They have been an integral part of Indian society, made great contributions to the building of modern India and have been prominent leaders in government and business. The world’s largest populations of Baha’i and Zoroastrians, and the second largest population of
Muslims live in India.
India has among the oldest surviving Jewish communities in the world and is said to be one of the few countries that has never seen any anti-Semitic persecution. Waves of Jewish migrants came to India more than two thousand years ago, following the destruction of the first and second Jewish Temples. They were welcomed by Hindu rulers and flourished ever since.
Christianity came to India from its earliest days, perhaps as early as Apostle St. Thomas in 1st CE. Portugese settlers came in the 15th CE and were allocated land and trading rights by local rulers. The early Christians who were later persecuted by the Portugese in India were protected by Hindu rulers. However, as Christian missionary activity grew under British colonial rule, it caused distrust. Violent conflicts between Hindus and Christians have arisen in protest against religious conversion or reflecting ancient rivalries among competing social groups that have adopted different religions.
Muslims came to India in 8th CE both as traders and as rulers. Some Muslim rulers were open-minded on religion; some levied a religion tax, encouraged forced conversions and destroyed temples, replacing them by mosques. The legacy of these actions against Hindus has been continued social tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India that are easily fanned into violence by political forces.
Zoroastrians took refuge in India in about the 10th CE, fleeing from persecution by Muslims in Iran. They came to an amicable arrangement with the Hindu rulers and have flourished since, preserving their ancient religious practices.
India’s connection with the Baha’i faith goes back to 1844, before the Bahaullah proclaimed himself as the Promised One. The first Indian who became Baha’i in 1909 was a Hindu and there are now more than a million Baha’i in India.
While Hindus readily accept the validity of other religions as spiritual paths, they are offended by claims of exclusivity or dogmatic assertions by which a religion rejects the validity of Hindu religious practices. Missionaries have long been active in India, sometimes with official encouragement and always with substantial funding from overseas. Sometimes their proselytizing zeal takes advantage of economic deprivation or lack of education among poorer (62) sections of Hindu society. Hindus generally view these activities as a form of coercion and some groups have resorted to violence. But this has not altered the fundamental ethos of co-existence among the diverse religions in India.
References.
79) Kena Upanishad
80) Bhagavad Gita 9.29
81) Bhagavad Gita 9.26
82) Bhagavad Gita 3.26 and 3.29
85) A version of this note was first presented for discussion at the Woodstock Interreligious Dialogue on Education in Georgetown University, Washington D.C. The topic was inspired by the book Faith and Belief: The Difference Between Them by Wilfred Cantwell Smith, 1979.
86) For instance, Gaudapada’s Mandukya Karika rejects the concepts of cause and effect inherent in the concept of karma and rebirth; and the Asthavakra Gita points out that a Realized person who has dropped the ego is not bound by conventional tenets of dharma.
87) See Sutra 1.20 of Yoga Sutras composed by the Sage Patanjali in approximately 200 BCE.
CHAPTER 19, FAITH AND BELIEF IN HINDUISM, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
There is confusion among observers on the role of faith and belief in Hinduism. Some refer to Hinduism as a “belief system” where faith has a minor role. It is also referred to as a “faith” in common with other world religions. Both these statements are problematic to practicing Hindus. The reality is more nuanced and understanding it is a prerequisite for understanding what Hinduism is all about.
Belief
If “belief” refers to uncritical acceptance of the veracity of a proposition, there is no specific belief that Hindus are required to subscribe to in order to be accepted as Hindus. There is no creed or dogma or doctrine that is central to Hinduism as a whole, although subgroups of Hindus may define themselves by belief in certain propositions. Examples of such beliefs would be the primacy of a particular form of God or the divinity of their leader. But these very beliefs may or may not be shared by other Hindus. There are also some beliefs that are so widely held among Hindus as to qualify as “consensus.” Examples of such beliefs are laws of karma and rebirth, that the Vedas are revealed scripture, or the importance of adherence to dharma. Unlikely as it may seem, even these beliefs are rejected in some philosophical treatises that are highly revered by Hindus (86)
At the highest levels in Hindu philosophy, freedom from uncritical belief is a cherished value. To describe Hinduism as “a belief system” is to miss its essence: it is a seeking of the Truth by transforming the mind so that one becomes aware of the Divine presence everywhere, at all times, in the whole of creation.
Faith
In Hinduism, the concept closest to faith is shraddha. Shraddha is broader than faith: it signifies a commitment, trust, and understanding that inspire a sense of reverence. The reverence is for something that cannot be directly observed or proven, which is what makes this the province of faith. Thus, shraddha is a term that includes faith – specifically in the validity of scripture and in the teachings of a Guru who is learned in the scriptures and has a well-established experiential understanding of them.
In his commentary on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (87) the sage Vyasa points out that for a yogi, shraddha is like a mother who protects and nourishes her child. Shraddha
is vital to all of the various paths in Hindu spiritual practice because the end goal is devotion to and direct experience of a Higher Consciousness that lies at the core of all (64) beings, while also transcending the world as we know it.
In the Hindu path of devotion, where the spiritual aspirant surrenders wholly to God and performs all actions as a service to God, shraddha is of paramount (88) importance. In the path of knowledge too, shraddha has a foundational role in spiritual practice. (89)
Some spiritual aspirants are not comfortable with being called to accept a claim solely on scriptural authority. But no such authority is dictated in Hinduism.
Shraddha is to be understood as a conviction that is based on our understanding and experience rather than as blind faith. Indeed, Hindu philosophical scriptures require the spiritual aspirant to subject the teachings to the test of reason. The scriptures, commentaries, and explanatory texts in Vedanta go to great lengths to explain and defend the propositions they make; they provide illustrations, and they pose and rebut arguments that cast doubt on specific teachings. By reflecting on such argumentation, the aspirant gains a bulwark against the doubts and develops greater faith in the scriptures.
Those trained in the physical sciences and its methods are reassured that the scriptures are not in conflict with science and reason. As science has progressed in understanding physical phenomena, its findings are coming closer to the depictions in the ancient scriptures of time and space, matter and energy, and the cosmos. (90)
For some, this convergence has served to strengthen their faith in the Hindu scriptures. Thus, emphasis on reasonableness, rather than an appeal to faith alone, has made it easier for Hindus to accept the Vedas. But more important than reason, the scriptural teaching must be supported by one’s own experience -- not necessarily a mystical experience that is available only to a few, but experience consistent with simple realities that are widely recognized. Hindu scriptures themselves declare unambiguously that direct experience of the Divine has greater authority than the scriptures. (91)
Scrutiny and reflection on our own life-experiences confirm the validity of scriptural injunctions that call on us to be equipoised, fearless, and ever-focused on God. Strengthened by these disciplines, direct experience of the Divine is available to all, regardless of religious affiliation.
Shraddha’s place in Hindu spiritual practice is well illustrated by the sage Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras . In Sutra 1.20, shraddha is the first of five requirements for spiritual progress. Shraddha is the foundation for other requirements, the second of which is virya : the ability and enthusiasm to face hardship and put forth the effort needed to overcome obstacles on the spiritual path.
Next, the aspirant needs smriti : the ability to retain what he or she has learnt and remember always how we relate to God. All this leads to the fourth requirement, samadhi : complete absorption in the object of one’s meditation, a one-pointed contemplation on the source of all life and all joy
References.
(88). “In the beginning one must have shraddha ”: Rupa Goswami’s Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu 1.4.15
(89) “The one who has shraddha … obtains knowledge”: Bhagavad Gita 4. 39 (90) For examples, see Pride of India, A Glimpse into India’s Scientic Heritage, Samskrita Bharati, 2006
(91) See Mundaka Upanishad 1.1.5. The culmination of this process is prajna, the light of discriminative knowledge by which the practitioner realizes the true nature of all things, the Ultimate Truth. The key point here is that while shraddha is the first requirement mentioned by Patanjali, there are many more steps to achieve the fruit of spiritual practice. Similarly, in Vedanta, the path of philosophical enquiry, shraddha is one of six qualities referred to collectively as the “wealth” of a spiritual aspirant.
(92) Thus, shraddha is a broader concept than implied by the English word “faith.” The scriptures themselves do not encourage reliance on shraddha alone, but insist on consistency with reason and human experience. The foundation of Hindu spiritual practice is shraddha in the existence of the Divine and, hence, in the scriptures and in the teachings of the Guru. Together with other pre-requisites for spiritual growth, shraddha carries us on our own journey to the transcendental reality (92).
The six qualities are: calmness, self-control, withdrawal, endurance, shraddha, and tranquility. Vivekachudamani 22-26 by Shankaracharya.
Chapter 17. CASTE
Chapter 18. RESPECT FOR OTHER RELIGIONS
Chapter 19. FAITH AND BELIEF IN HINDUISM
CHAPTER 17, CASTE, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
Summary.
Caste is a Portugese word that confuses a spiritual concept with a social hierarchy that is not part of Hindu teachings. Hindu scriptures categorize people by different temperaments – known as varna-- and prescribe special duties for those in each varna. Persons who are
- intellectuals, Brahmanas, are required to preserve knowledge of the scriptures by studying and teaching them;
- those who love power, Kshatriyas, are required to use their power to protect the weak;
- those who love money, Vaishyas, are required to pay taxes and build social infrastructure;
- those who have no special calling, Sudras, are required to serve their employers loyally.
These classifications by varna were not hereditary. In contrast, the social phenomenon known as jati meant that children generally took on the professions of their parents forming a rigid hierarchy that was hereditary. The combination of varna and jati, came to be known as the caste system. The oppressive practices based on caste were not part of the scriptural classification into varnas; they were an outgrowth of the rigid social classification by jati.
What relation does the caste system have to Hinduism? Answering this question requires understanding the distinction between the religious dimension and the socio-cultural dimensions of the practice of Hinduism in India.
The word ‘casta,’ meaning ‘race’ or ‘breed’ was used by the Portugese to describe the social hierarchies they found in India in the 15th century. In doing so they fused two separate concepts: varna that has a scriptural foundation; and jati that defines community. The consequences of this confusion have been profound; and made worse by social and political influences in recent centuries. Hindu scriptures use the word Varna to describe a way of understanding the diversity of classes and human temperaments in all human societies.
In any society there are some persons who are intellectuals; others are focused on exercising power and leadership; others are engaged in productive occupations and amassing wealth; and many have no special calling, content to function as workers and followers in society. Based on these four temperaments, Hindu scriptures assign tasks and responsibilities to each varna so that all people contribute to society in ways for which they are best qualified:
- the Brahmana functions as the priest or intellectual and is required to preserve knowledge of the scriptures by studying and teaching them;
- the Kshatriya is a ruler of society and is required to use his power to maintain social order and especially to protect the weak;
- the vaisya is the trader or businessman and is required to support society by funding the state treasury and building social infrastructure;
- the sudra is required to serve his employers loyally.
Which of these human tendencies we are born with is the result of how we lived our past lives: what qualities we endeavored to cultivate and the attitudes that we brought to our work. Recognizing this as a source of diversity among human beings, our scriptures give us all a two-
fold message.
First, discharge the duties and functions that accrue naturally to us in our lives -- diligently and in a spirit of dedication to God. Second, do our best to cultivate nobler qualities that refine our temperament in this and in future lives. Thus, whatever our particular temperament or social status in this life, we each have the opportunity to evolve spiritually toward the ultimate goal of liberation from the cycle of births and deaths.
Scriptures emphasize that we do not inherit our varna from our parents. They reflect our inherent qualities, not our parentage. Nor is there an implied social hierarchy. Those in each varna contribute to the betterment of society in their own ways; and spiritual rewards come to those who best fulfill their own obligations as defined by their varna. In modern discourse, this fourfold classification of human temperaments is mistakenly referred to as the ‘caste system.’
The social hierarchy understood by the term ‘caste’ is better described by the term jati, which means communities. There are several thousand jati’s prevalent in India, each with its own religious and social practices and bound by numerous conventions governing their interactions and perceived hierarchies. Confusing the concepts of varna and jati has led to the mistaken conclusion that the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion. This is what has been misleadingly taught to generations of school children in USA. The reality is that varna is a feature of the religion and jati is a feature of society, with no basis in scripture.
Jati is inherited; varna is not. Being a Brahmana by varna requires the cultivation of qualities that characterize this varna; and being born of Brahmana parents is neither necessary nor sufficient to be a Brahmana.
Jati defines occupation, similar to the prevalence of guilds in medieval Europe; varna defines personal temperament. Traditionally, the mapping of the thousands of jatis into the four varnas changed over time. While Brahmanas were the privileged class in the performance of rituals and in educational attainment, this privileged status did not extend to other aspects of social power, wealth or influence.
Even in the religious context, some of the greatest saints and teachers in the Hindu tradition were not born of Brahmana parents. There are numerous examples, including the sage Vyasa who is the author of numerous revered spiritual texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the sage Valmiki who is the author of the Ramayana, the most widely known religious story in India. Even the famous Gayatri Mantra, one of the holiest in the Hindu tradition was revealed to the sage Visvamitra who was not born of Brahmana parentage.
But over history, several distortions emerged that led to the practice of the ‘caste system’ as we know it today: the mapping of varna into jati became more rigid; caste became an inherited attribute that gave rise to a rigid social hierarchy; and dominant castes oppressed the weak.
Jati’s that were engaged in “unclean” occupations such as scavenging or animal slaughter were treated as “outcastes”, (since variously known as “untouchables, “harijans” [people of God] or “Dalit”), a category that has no place in the Hindu scriptures. Caste distinctions became a social curse and the source of much suffering. It is important to recall that odious practices based on caste were not part of the scriptural classification into varnas; they were an outgrowth of the
rigid classification by jati .
That jati is a social, not religious, phenomena is further evidenced by the fact that caste discrimination is common in India among Christians, Muslims and Sikhs as well, although these religions officially reject caste distinctions. Caste discrimination and oppression violate a fundamental principle in Hindu philosophy that we should recognize the common divinity in all beings and treat them as we would treat ourselves. The political Constitution of independent India outlaws discrimination by caste. The communities that were classified as outcastes were offered special privileges under official programs of affirmative action in education and employment. The caste system as currently practiced has been roundly condemned by Hindu religious leaders, in the tradition of social reform movements in Hinduism over several centuries. With improved status and opportunity, some Dalits have become very prosperous. With democratic elections, castes that are more numerous have gained greatly in political influence.
However, exploitation and poverty among the lower castes undoubtedly continues to be a major social problem in India. In conclusion, the caste system is a compound of religious and social factors: social hierarchy and attendant oppression has been superimposed on a classification system that is offered in Hindu scriptures as a way of understanding human diversity and defining paths for spiritual evolution. It is seriously misleading to claim that the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion. The caste system, which is fundamentally different from the varna system that is found in the Hindu scriptures, is undoubtedly a serious social evil. Laws and regulations in India are in place to remedy centuries of abuse of the lower castes. Hindu religious leaders remain active in working against caste discrimination. There is evidence of considerable progress but the lower castes continue to face serious problems.
Note: Further information and copious references on this subject may be found at: 1.“Hinduism: Not cast in caste: Seeking an end to Caste - based discrimination”, published by the Hindu American Foundation, 2011. Downloadable at www.hafsite.org and
“The Caste System” by Dr. Raj Pandit Sharma, Hindu Council, UK, Feb 20008.
Downloadable at
http://www.hinducounciluk.org/reports/333-the-caste-system
Appendix : Excerpts from Hindu Scriptures.
Those who claim that the caste system is an integral part of the Hindu religion cite, and misinterpret, the following texts:
Verse 1. “The fourfold order (of varnas) was created by Me (the Supreme Being) according to the divisions of guna (quality) and karma (work),” Bhagavad Gita 4. 13.
This verse is misinterpreted to claim that the caste system is part of the basic design of Hinduism. But note that the verse is about varna, not caste. The emphasis is on guna (aptitude) and karma (function) and not jati (birth). The varna or the order to which we belong is independent of sex, birth or reeding.” (76)
Verse 2. “Of Brahmanas, of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas and also of Sudras…the activities are distinguished, in accordance with the qualities born of their nature,” Bhagavad Gita 18. 41.
This verse is misinterpreted to mean that Hinduism locks each person into his/her caste by birth. However, what this verse points out is the need for each of us to be comfortable with the qualities with which we are born. “Each individual has his inborn nature, and to make it effective in his life is his duty….So long as our work is done in accordance with our nature, we are righteous, and if we dedicate it to God, our work becomes a means of spiritual perfection.” (77)
Verse 3. The purusha Sukta is a famous hymn in the Vedas that describes the whole universe as emanating from the body of the Cosmic Person (Purusha). Some excerpts :
The Purusha, with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand legs, pervades all the Universe….The entire universe of happenings and creatures constitute but a quarter of Him. The remaining three quarters of His Glory consists of the immutable Consciousness….He pervades all beings that eat and things that never eat. From that yajna came horses and all creatures with two rows of teeth…cows, sheep and goats. From the face of the Purusha were born the Brahmanas, from His arms the Kshatriyas, from His thighs the Vaishyas and from His feet the Sudras. From the Purusha’s mind came the moon, from His eyes the sun, from His mouth Indra and fire, and from His breath came vital air. From the Purusha’s navel emerged ‘inner space’ and from His head ‘outer space’; from His feet the earth and from His ears the ‘directions’. Thus the worlds came into creation….” Rig Veda 10.90.1-16; Yajur Veda 31.1-16.
The reference to the four varnas emerging respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet is misinterpreted to indicate a hierarchy and a license for the Brahmanas to oppress the Sudras. The purport of this hymn is different. Just as the head, hands, thighs or feet alone can never be the whole person and every part.
References.
76) The Bhagavad Gita, by S. Radhakrishnan, Unwin Paperbacks; page 160
77) Op cit. page 364
78) The Universal Person, by Swami Chinmayananda, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1991; page 44.
CHAPTER 18, RESPECT FOR OTHER RELIGIONS, by DR. D.C. RAO.
Respect for other religions is part of the Hindu fabric. Hindus naturally accept the validity of the spiritual paths defined by other religions and have no hesitation in participating in worship with followers of other religions. The primary source of this intrinsic respect for other religions is in the core philosophy of Hindu scriptures: that the Supreme Divine Truth is beyond human comprehension. Anyone who thinks he “understands” this Truth, doesn’t (79).
The essence of spirituality in Hinduism is seeking better understanding of the Truth about our own true nature, our relationship with each other, and with the Divine Source of all being. As each religion is capable of casting some light on this goal, Hindus treat them all with respect and are ready to learn from them. Even within Hinduism, different philosophical traditions co-exist and are vigorously debated, creating a willingness to engage respectfully with other viewpoints. Hindus are not out to defend a doctrine and, therefore, do not feel threatened by the ideas of other religions. Another fundamental feature of Hindu philosophy is the belief that Divine Consciousness is all- pervasive, present in all beings. The Bhagavad Gita teaches that God does not favor or reject any being. (80)
The idea that any being may be “doomed” is alien to this philosophy. Every human being is believed to be capable of evolving spiritually and God accepts all forms of spiritual practice provided only that it is offered with devotion. (81)
Indeed, practitioners are cautioned not to disturb the equilibrium of those who are less spiritually evolved but rather to encourage them in maintaining their practice. (82)
There is a great variety of spiritual paths within Hinduism. Recognizing that spiritual seekers differ greatly in personal temperament, physical and mental abilities and preferences, scriptures offer a variety of spiritual practices suited to different seekers. Thus, Hindus are accustomed to seeing a variety of practices even within their own families and this diversity is embraced. Some visit temples regularly and frequently, others do not. Some engage in formal worship at home, others are more casual about it. Some fast, others don’t. It is natural, therefore, to refrain from being critical of the practices followed by other religions.
The readiness to embrace diversity is seen also in the concept of “God”. There are those who worship the Divine as abstract Consciousness while most Hindus express their devotion to particular manifestations of Consciousness as a personal God.
Hindus believe that God has (60)
appeared in a great variety of forms. They cultivate devotion to God by developing a close personal relationship with a “chosen” form of God through worship of an image, recounting stories and constant remembrance of God. Within a family, preferences might vary and a typical family altar would contain images of several different forms of God. The different images are not seen as different Gods, or as competing forms of God but rather as diverse manifestations of the One Supreme Being.
Thus Hindus recoil from the proposition that there is only one legitimate form of God, rendering the worship of other forms as somehow wrong or inferior. They view the Supreme Reality as being beyond all description while yet open to being described in many different ways. Descriptions offered by other religions are thus naturally deserving of respect. This expansive view of the nature of Divinity has led to a long history of Hinduism co-existing with other religions in India. (83)
While there were instances in early years of violence between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, these conflicts have long been resolved. For about 800 years since the 12th CE, India was ruled by non-Hindus — first Muslim and then Christian — until Independence in 1947. Tensions arising from this period continue to reverberate in India today. Throughout Indian history, Hindus have not embarked on wars to subdue other religions.
Since independence, India has been governed under a secular Constitution that guarantees the rights of minorities to freely worship and follow their faith.
Buddhism originated in India in the 5th BCE. Siddhartha was enlightened at age 35 and preached extensively in India as the Buddha for 45 years until he died a natural death at the age of about 80 years. Buddhism remained a dominant religion in India for about a thousand years, during which time it spread through most of Asia. Hindus still worship Buddha as one of the major incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Although concepts of God differ greatly, Hinduism and Buddhism share much of their philosophy, ethics and spiritual practices, especially in the field of Tantra. Hinduism adopted from Buddhism the concept of monastic orders to promote scriptural study and practice.
Followers of the Dalai Lama and other Tibetan Buddhist leaders have had shelter and support in India since 1959.
Jainism predates Buddhism and has coexisted with Hinduism since ancient times. Its followers were known first as Sramans, then as Nirgranthis and, after Lord Mahavira who preached in India slightly earlier than Buddha, as Jains. The first Jain Tirthankar, or teacher, has a prominent place in Hindu scriptures. Despite major theological differences between Hinduism and Jainism, worship practices in the two traditions are very similar although specific rituals differ. Many families practice both Jainism and Hinduism and there are temples that serve both religions. The cultures are so intertwined that it is hard to identify boundaries.
Sikhism was founded in Punjab, India, by Guru Nanak at a time when Muslims ruled over most of India and there was a strong wave of Hindu saints who emphasized a devotional approach to spirituality. There are strong similarities and differences between Hinduism and Sikhism in terms (83)
Culturally, however, there has been a very close affinity among Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs. When the Sikhs fought the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the 17th CE to defend Hindus’ religious freedom, the bonds between Hindus and Sikhs were strengthened. It became common in Punjabi Hindu families for the eldest son to practice Sikhism and Hindu families often prayed at Sikh
Gurudwaras. Sikh discontent in recent decades reflected political issues rather than any form of religious discrimination.
In addition to the religions born in India, India has provided a home for followers of other world religions too. They have been an integral part of Indian society, made great contributions to the building of modern India and have been prominent leaders in government and business. The world’s largest populations of Baha’i and Zoroastrians, and the second largest population of
Muslims live in India.
India has among the oldest surviving Jewish communities in the world and is said to be one of the few countries that has never seen any anti-Semitic persecution. Waves of Jewish migrants came to India more than two thousand years ago, following the destruction of the first and second Jewish Temples. They were welcomed by Hindu rulers and flourished ever since.
Christianity came to India from its earliest days, perhaps as early as Apostle St. Thomas in 1st CE. Portugese settlers came in the 15th CE and were allocated land and trading rights by local rulers. The early Christians who were later persecuted by the Portugese in India were protected by Hindu rulers. However, as Christian missionary activity grew under British colonial rule, it caused distrust. Violent conflicts between Hindus and Christians have arisen in protest against religious conversion or reflecting ancient rivalries among competing social groups that have adopted different religions.
Muslims came to India in 8th CE both as traders and as rulers. Some Muslim rulers were open-minded on religion; some levied a religion tax, encouraged forced conversions and destroyed temples, replacing them by mosques. The legacy of these actions against Hindus has been continued social tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India that are easily fanned into violence by political forces.
Zoroastrians took refuge in India in about the 10th CE, fleeing from persecution by Muslims in Iran. They came to an amicable arrangement with the Hindu rulers and have flourished since, preserving their ancient religious practices.
India’s connection with the Baha’i faith goes back to 1844, before the Bahaullah proclaimed himself as the Promised One. The first Indian who became Baha’i in 1909 was a Hindu and there are now more than a million Baha’i in India.
While Hindus readily accept the validity of other religions as spiritual paths, they are offended by claims of exclusivity or dogmatic assertions by which a religion rejects the validity of Hindu religious practices. Missionaries have long been active in India, sometimes with official encouragement and always with substantial funding from overseas. Sometimes their proselytizing zeal takes advantage of economic deprivation or lack of education among poorer (62) sections of Hindu society. Hindus generally view these activities as a form of coercion and some groups have resorted to violence. But this has not altered the fundamental ethos of co-existence among the diverse religions in India.
References.
79) Kena Upanishad
80) Bhagavad Gita 9.29
81) Bhagavad Gita 9.26
82) Bhagavad Gita 3.26 and 3.29
85) A version of this note was first presented for discussion at the Woodstock Interreligious Dialogue on Education in Georgetown University, Washington D.C. The topic was inspired by the book Faith and Belief: The Difference Between Them by Wilfred Cantwell Smith, 1979.
86) For instance, Gaudapada’s Mandukya Karika rejects the concepts of cause and effect inherent in the concept of karma and rebirth; and the Asthavakra Gita points out that a Realized person who has dropped the ego is not bound by conventional tenets of dharma.
87) See Sutra 1.20 of Yoga Sutras composed by the Sage Patanjali in approximately 200 BCE.
CHAPTER 19, FAITH AND BELIEF IN HINDUISM, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
There is confusion among observers on the role of faith and belief in Hinduism. Some refer to Hinduism as a “belief system” where faith has a minor role. It is also referred to as a “faith” in common with other world religions. Both these statements are problematic to practicing Hindus. The reality is more nuanced and understanding it is a prerequisite for understanding what Hinduism is all about.
Belief
If “belief” refers to uncritical acceptance of the veracity of a proposition, there is no specific belief that Hindus are required to subscribe to in order to be accepted as Hindus. There is no creed or dogma or doctrine that is central to Hinduism as a whole, although subgroups of Hindus may define themselves by belief in certain propositions. Examples of such beliefs would be the primacy of a particular form of God or the divinity of their leader. But these very beliefs may or may not be shared by other Hindus. There are also some beliefs that are so widely held among Hindus as to qualify as “consensus.” Examples of such beliefs are laws of karma and rebirth, that the Vedas are revealed scripture, or the importance of adherence to dharma. Unlikely as it may seem, even these beliefs are rejected in some philosophical treatises that are highly revered by Hindus (86)
At the highest levels in Hindu philosophy, freedom from uncritical belief is a cherished value. To describe Hinduism as “a belief system” is to miss its essence: it is a seeking of the Truth by transforming the mind so that one becomes aware of the Divine presence everywhere, at all times, in the whole of creation.
Faith
In Hinduism, the concept closest to faith is shraddha. Shraddha is broader than faith: it signifies a commitment, trust, and understanding that inspire a sense of reverence. The reverence is for something that cannot be directly observed or proven, which is what makes this the province of faith. Thus, shraddha is a term that includes faith – specifically in the validity of scripture and in the teachings of a Guru who is learned in the scriptures and has a well-established experiential understanding of them.
In his commentary on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (87) the sage Vyasa points out that for a yogi, shraddha is like a mother who protects and nourishes her child. Shraddha
is vital to all of the various paths in Hindu spiritual practice because the end goal is devotion to and direct experience of a Higher Consciousness that lies at the core of all (64) beings, while also transcending the world as we know it.
In the Hindu path of devotion, where the spiritual aspirant surrenders wholly to God and performs all actions as a service to God, shraddha is of paramount (88) importance. In the path of knowledge too, shraddha has a foundational role in spiritual practice. (89)
Some spiritual aspirants are not comfortable with being called to accept a claim solely on scriptural authority. But no such authority is dictated in Hinduism.
Shraddha is to be understood as a conviction that is based on our understanding and experience rather than as blind faith. Indeed, Hindu philosophical scriptures require the spiritual aspirant to subject the teachings to the test of reason. The scriptures, commentaries, and explanatory texts in Vedanta go to great lengths to explain and defend the propositions they make; they provide illustrations, and they pose and rebut arguments that cast doubt on specific teachings. By reflecting on such argumentation, the aspirant gains a bulwark against the doubts and develops greater faith in the scriptures.
Those trained in the physical sciences and its methods are reassured that the scriptures are not in conflict with science and reason. As science has progressed in understanding physical phenomena, its findings are coming closer to the depictions in the ancient scriptures of time and space, matter and energy, and the cosmos. (90)
For some, this convergence has served to strengthen their faith in the Hindu scriptures. Thus, emphasis on reasonableness, rather than an appeal to faith alone, has made it easier for Hindus to accept the Vedas. But more important than reason, the scriptural teaching must be supported by one’s own experience -- not necessarily a mystical experience that is available only to a few, but experience consistent with simple realities that are widely recognized. Hindu scriptures themselves declare unambiguously that direct experience of the Divine has greater authority than the scriptures. (91)
Scrutiny and reflection on our own life-experiences confirm the validity of scriptural injunctions that call on us to be equipoised, fearless, and ever-focused on God. Strengthened by these disciplines, direct experience of the Divine is available to all, regardless of religious affiliation.
Shraddha’s place in Hindu spiritual practice is well illustrated by the sage Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras . In Sutra 1.20, shraddha is the first of five requirements for spiritual progress. Shraddha is the foundation for other requirements, the second of which is virya : the ability and enthusiasm to face hardship and put forth the effort needed to overcome obstacles on the spiritual path.
Next, the aspirant needs smriti : the ability to retain what he or she has learnt and remember always how we relate to God. All this leads to the fourth requirement, samadhi : complete absorption in the object of one’s meditation, a one-pointed contemplation on the source of all life and all joy
References.
(88). “In the beginning one must have shraddha ”: Rupa Goswami’s Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu 1.4.15
(89) “The one who has shraddha … obtains knowledge”: Bhagavad Gita 4. 39 (90) For examples, see Pride of India, A Glimpse into India’s Scientic Heritage, Samskrita Bharati, 2006
(91) See Mundaka Upanishad 1.1.5. The culmination of this process is prajna, the light of discriminative knowledge by which the practitioner realizes the true nature of all things, the Ultimate Truth. The key point here is that while shraddha is the first requirement mentioned by Patanjali, there are many more steps to achieve the fruit of spiritual practice. Similarly, in Vedanta, the path of philosophical enquiry, shraddha is one of six qualities referred to collectively as the “wealth” of a spiritual aspirant.
(92) Thus, shraddha is a broader concept than implied by the English word “faith.” The scriptures themselves do not encourage reliance on shraddha alone, but insist on consistency with reason and human experience. The foundation of Hindu spiritual practice is shraddha in the existence of the Divine and, hence, in the scriptures and in the teachings of the Guru. Together with other pre-requisites for spiritual growth, shraddha carries us on our own journey to the transcendental reality (92).
The six qualities are: calmness, self-control, withdrawal, endurance, shraddha, and tranquility. Vivekachudamani 22-26 by Shankaracharya.
