What spiritual Principles could guide our lives?
Hindu Principles and Practices.
Chapters 1 - 6 : Principles
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2. GOAL AND PATHS OF HINDUISM: AN OVERVIEW
Chapter 3. THE SCOPE OF SCRIPTURES
Chapter 4. PURUSHARTHA: THE GOALS OF LIFE
Chapter 5. MOKSHA: LIBERATION
Chapter 6. DHARMA
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, By Dr. D.C. Rao.
Hinduism elicits opposing reactions. It is admired by many as an ancient philosophy with a soaring vision of cosmic unity and an unreserved respect for other religions. But others regard Hinduism as an ethnic religion that is complex, full of contradictions, and riven by superstition and caste divisions. Despite scores of introductory books on Hinduism and decades of closer contact with the West as the number of Hindus in North America and Europe has grown to five million a coherent understanding of Hinduism is yet to emerge. Promoting such an understanding is the aim of these brief essays. The essays are addressed to the critical reader who seeks an authentic resolution of the opposing views of Hinduism. The goal is that the reader acquires a clear understanding of Hinduism’s fundamental concepts which help explain its beliefs and practices.
Hinduism’s core philosophy is that the entire creation emerged from, rests in, and will dissolve into the One Source of all Being and that, by experiencing the connection with the Source, anyone can be free of sorrow. This experience is extremely subtle and beyond the reach of our mind and senses. Realizing this truth requires a direct, intuitive personal experience - the result of spiritual practice unique to the needs of each individual. Therefore, Hinduism offers a very wide range of practices to choose from and the individual spiritual aspirant is guided by a spiritual master, a guru.
Once this core structure is understood, it becomes clear that contemporary accounts of Hinduism that present the religion merely as a catalog of beliefs with a bewildering array of practices are misleading. And those who study Hinduism only through its texts or by observing external practices will likely miss its essential integrity and be distracted by the details of its numerous philosophical doctrines and spiritual practices. Instead, a more open-minded study with teachers in the tradition will reveal that Hinduism has an inspiringly coherent vision; and the variety of practices bring seekers of diverse temperaments to the same goal, each in their own way. Accessing this core reveals Hinduism’s stunning simplicity.
The barriers posed by Hinduism’s apparent complexity are compounded when Hinduism is seen through the lens of other organized religions. There are many ways in which Hinduism differs on features that are familiar to practitioners of other religions :
Hinduism posits an intimate relationship between the cosmos and the individual that is alien to conventional Western ideas. This world-view has profound implications for spiritual practice. Western attempts to describe Hinduism without sensitivity to these differences have led to deeply ingrained misconceptions. Hinduism is wrongly described as polytheistic and as worshipping idols.
The social phenomenon of caste is confused with the scriptural concept of varna or temperament, leading to the incorrect conclusion that the caste system is a central feature of Hinduism.
These and other misconceptions have dominated teaching about Hinduism and, therefore, public understanding. Such misunderstanding cannot be remedied by merely conveying information about beliefs and practices of Hinduism. More information does not change the way people might think about Hinduism when they come to the topic with a preconceived framework. Modifying the framework requires going deeper in explaining the rationale and principles that guide religious practices. It is only by going deeper that one becomes aware of the unified vision that underlies the astonishing diversity of practices among the various denominations within Hinduism. Without this, it is hard to gain a better understanding of Hinduism as a whole.
Addressing this formidable challenge is the task of this set of essays. Each essay seeks to promote understanding of a significant concept or practice in Hinduism, showing how they are connected with fundamental ideas at the core of Hindu philosophy. Each essay is intentionally brief and largely self-contained so readers can go directly to topics that interest them. Together, the essays deal with a range of topics necessary to gain a better understanding of Hinduism. (5 )
CHAPTER 2. THE GOAL AND PATHS OF HINDUISM : AN OVERVIEW by Dr. D.C. Rao
Everybody without exception seeks happiness. Other goals such as money, power, and reputation are all desired because we think they will make us happy. Although we all seek happiness, we often fail. Is failure unavoidable? Is there a way to rise above the roller-coaster of life and experience happiness at all times? One way to understand Hinduism is as a positive answer to these questions.
Hindu scriptures assert that there is an eternal, unchanging Consciousness that pervades the entire universe and that anyone can gain limitless bliss by connecting with that Divinity. This is called moksha.
If blissful Consciousness is all-pervasive, each of us must necessarily dwell in it. Then why do we feel miserable? Hindu sages answer that it is because we forget who we really are and how we relate to Divine Consciousness. When our minds are clear and calm, we automatically become aware of our true nature, which is blissful. One way to understand Hindu spiritual practice is as transforming our minds so that we become aware of our connection with Divine Consciousness and reclaim our blissful nature, attaining moksha
. The Hindu spiritual journey is a journey of the mind – from being agitated in the pursuit of material goals ( artha ) and sense pleasures (kama) to a state of perfect tranquility. A mind that is clear and calm is no longer an impediment to the enjoyment of Divine bliss. What are the steps in this spiritual journey?
The first step is to discipline the desire for material possessions and sense pleasures. This is done by firm adherence to dharma, the ethical foundation that is elaborately explained in Hindu scriptures. By performing one’s duty and cultivating qualities such as honesty, self-discipline, love and compassion, the mind becomes less agitated by base emotions such as greed, anger and lust.
The second step in the Hindu spiritual journey is dedication to selfless service, undertaking all actions without focus on personal gain. This is known as
karma yoga . Practice of karma yoga softens the personal ego by discovering the joy to be found in serving others and working as an instrument of God. Beyond this point on the spiritual journey, the Hindu spiritual path has several branches. Recognizing that spiritual seekers differ greatly in personal temperament, physical and mental abilities and preferences, scriptures offer a variety of ways in which the mind can be further refined and made ready for the practice of meditation and gaining spiritual enlightenment.
One possible path is Raja Yoga that trains the mind to meditate using exercises of the body, breath and mind. This path is good for those who have good health and a lot of discipline.
(See the opening verse of the ancient text Sankhya Karika by Ishvarakrishna.)
Another path is Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge, which involves deep study of the Upanishads and related scriptures to understand who we are and how we relate to the world and to God. This path is good for those who have sharp minds and intellectual stamina for years of study and practice of philosophy.
Another path is Bhakti Yoga, the path of devotion, where the seeker is asked to rest his or her mind and heart in God. Unlike other paths, the path of
Bhakti Yoga is free of prerequisites but it is by no means “easy” to develop a deep and abiding personal devotion to God. Hindu scriptures offer ways to facilitate this by encouraging worship of God in specific forms with whom the seeker can form a close personal relationship. This is often misrepresented as polytheism and worship of “idols.”
Hindu scriptures are replete with techniques and practices that can help refine the mind and overcome deep-seated mental habits that block spiritual progress. The spiritual journey might take very many lifetimes. Each life begins where the previous life left off and, depending on one’s actions, may take one closer to or further away from the goal of moksha. But in the end, liberation is assured for all, as there is no permanent resting place other than in one’s own Divine nature. Far from being mutually exclusive, the various paths of yoga
are strongly complementary.
Karma Yoga is recognized as powerful in purifying the mind and a necessary foundation for all spiritual practice. A deep practice of the path of knowledge leads to the flowering of devotion; and the deep practice of the path of devotion leads to the emergence of knowledge.
All these paths culminate in a mind that is clear and calm, aware of the Divine’s presence everywhere at all times in oneself, in every other human being, and in the whole of creation. Such a person rises above sorrows and spreads peace and joy to others.
CHAPTER 3 THE SCOPE OF SCRIPTURES, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
Hinduism is defined by a search for the universal and timeless Truth and specific guidance on how to connect with a Supreme Being that is beyond comprehension by the human mind. The direct experience of numerous sages is recorded in scriptures that unfold a variety of paths to the
Truth. Thus, “Scripture” in Hinduism refers to a large body of literature rather than a single text. Since spiritual seekers have varying levels of understanding, scriptural messages are presented in a variety of ways to provide direct access to all seekers. The scriptures inspire and support the efforts of all seekers to evolve spiritually. Thus while some scriptures emphasize philosophy, others are replete with stories, while yet others emphasize techniques for spiritual practice.
Besides dealing with the transcendental, the scriptures’ emphasis on integrating spiritual practice with daily life leads to their reflections on morals, sciences, and the arts. Not surprisingly, Hindus revere and study numerous texts as scripture. Hindu scriptures are classified broadly into two categories:
Shruti and Smriti. The word Shruti literally means “heard,” and consists of truths that ancient sages realized in their meditation. For many centuries they were transmitted orally, which is another reason why they are known as
“heard.” The term Shruti is applied to the Vedas, including the Upanishads that constitute the fourth and final part of the Vedas.
These texts are revered as “revealed” and are the foundation of all of Hinduism. Rigorous disciplines were devised for chanting of the Shruti texts to ensure their accurate preservation in the oral tradition. The second category of scripture is Smriti that literally means “memory,” i.e. texts that are designed to help us “remember” the teachings of Shruti.
Other than Vedas and Upanishads, all scriptural texts are loosely classified as
Smriti. Teachings in Smriti texts are meant to be read and interpreted in the light of changing circumstances over time. The specific statements in Smriti texts do not carry the same weight as Shruti.
Any conflict in teachings between Smriti and Shruti is to be resolved in favor of
Shruti.(3)
While there is general agreement that the Vedas are over three thousand years old, there is little agreement on just how old they are. Evidence is scarce and estimates of their age vary widely, from 1200 bce to some thousands of years earlier. Similar disagreements are found on dating other ancient scriptures, which were preserved orally for a long time before they were written. The Vedas and Upanishads are composed in an ancient form of Sanskrit; the Puranas and most of the other older scriptures are in classical Sanskrit; and texts composed in the last millennium are sometimes in the various regional languages.
Ref 3 See Manu Smriti 4.176 and Vyasa Smriti 1-V-4.
Vedas. The word veda means “knowledge.” There are four Vedas:
Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva, of which the Rig (Rk, Rg) Veda is the oldest. It has over 10,000 mantras that deal with a wide range of topics. Superficially, they are seen as hymns to the forces of nature and liturgy for ceremonial rituals; but a deeper study reveals teachings on metaphysical and philosophical issues.
Upanishads contain extensive exploration of transcendental truths and methods of Self-Realization. There are more than a hundred Upanishads of which between ten and fourteen are regarded as major. No individuals claim to have authored the Upanishads.
Although there are differences in detail among the Upanishads, their hilosophical content is remarkably consistent and forms the basis of Vedanta.
The Upanishads, along with the Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras , constitute the primary basis for the practice of Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge.
Vedangas There are a number of auxiliary texts known collectively as Vedanga and classified as Smriti.
They cover a range of topics:
Puranas. These are stories.. They bridge the gap between the ancient Shruti scriptures and common people.
The teachings in the Puranas are completely in harmony with the teachings of the Vedas and Upanishads but are greatly simplified and made more interesting. There are eighteen major Puranas and many minor ones that have compiled stories and narratives over many centuries, mainly during the first millennium CE.
Each Purana tells stories around a principal character, either a God or a Sage. They cover a wide range of topics, both sacred and secular such as
Modern Hindu beliefs and religious practices are derived mainly from the
Puranas.
Many consider Srimad Bhagavatam as being the most important Purana.
It deals with the many avatars of Vishnu and provides a philosophical basis for the Vaishnava devotional traditions in Hinduism, particularly those centering on the worship of Lord Krishna.
Puranas contain two of the more important scriptures in the Shakti tradition: the Durga Saptashati, also known as Devi Mahatmyam, extols the Divine Mother’s victories over evil forces; and Lalita Sahasranama , the thousand names of the Divine Mother, provides an esoteric understanding of the Supreme Being in Her feminine form.
Ramayana is the single most popular scripture in all of Hinduism and has had an enormous impact in many dimensions of life in India and parts of Southeast Asia. It is traditionally classed as an Itihasa , history, and tells the life story of a noble prince, Lord Rama, who is an avatar of Lord Vishnu. He suffers exile and many hardships while destroying powerful demons before returning to rule his kingdom for a very long time. This epic story portrays several characters who embody ideal qualities and conduct. Among them are
There are numerous versions of the Ramayana, of which the most well-known are those by the original author, the Sage Valmiki, and the poet-saint Tulsidas. These texts are recited by devoted Hindus at home and in devotional gatherings; are consulted for guidance on life; form the basis for dances and dramatic presentations; and are popular children’s stories.
Aditya Hridaya Stotram is a popular prayer that originates in the Ramayana.
Mahabharata is also a historical epic. It is the longest text the world has known, seven times the combined length of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
Against the background of an extended conflict between two branches of the Kaurava family, the Mahabharata is a treasure house of stories and discourses on the practice of Dharma. As a scripture, its primary messages are the importance of always upholding Dharma, the need for complete devotion to God and the utter futility of war.
Embedded in the Mahabharata are two texts of special scriptural significance: the Bhagavad Gita and Vishnu Sahasranama.
The Vishnu Sahasranama, the thousand names of Lord Vishnu, is one of the most important prayers used in the Vaishnava tradition.
The Bhagavad Gita is a primary scripture for all Hindus in modern times. Although it is a tiny part of the Mahabharata and hence technically classed as a Smriti text, it is traditionally accorded the rank of an Upanishad.
It presents Lord Krishna’s teachings to the warrior Arjuna and is a profound guide to living a spiritual life while being engaged in the world. The text outlines the various paths of Yoga, summarizes Upanishadic teachings on spiritual topics and offers succinct advice on how to lead a spiritually fulfilling life.
Dharma Shastras are a class of texts that explain how Dharma is maintained in daily life. They deal in great detail with a wide range of topics:
Since these texts are part of the Smriti, not Shruti, their teachings are subject to re-interpretation to suit differences in time and place. Hence there are numerous texts composed by various authors over many centuries. The
Manu Smriti is one of earliest texts but is still regarded as most authoritative.
Darshana Shastras are philosophical texts that are studied as part of Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge. The subject matter of these texts is the relationship between God, the individual and the phenomenal world, including theories of creation. There are six schools of philosophy in Hinduism with differing views on these subjects. Each of them has a primary text, generally in the form of Sutras, aphorisms. Two of these are still widely studied by Hindus:
Agama Shastras are ancient and numerous, including many that have been lost over the centuries. They deal with practical aspects of
They define many of the common practices now followed by observant Hindus in the worship of Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti, the Divine Mother.
Tantric texts are part of this category. Some texts such as Rama Raksha Stotram, Saundaryalahari, and Shiva Mahimna Stotram are popular and used widely in the worship of Rama, Shakti and Shiva respectively.
Bhakti Texts: From popular saints known as Alwars and Nayanars in the 7th
BCE into contemporary times, the teachings, poems and songs composed by many saints in regional languages have been a major source of inspiration. Their messages of devotion, dharma and spiritual practice were conveyed in simple language by innumerable teachers and singers to all parts of India and beyond. The plethora of scriptures is not as bewildering as might appear at first sight. Most Hindus receive their religious education from family traditions and discourses by spiritual leaders. Individual Hindus follow the prayers and teachings of the denomination to which they belong and possibly the more specific oral instructions of a Guru.
Few access directly the Vedas and Upanishads that provide the foundation for all other scriptures in Hinduism. The stories from the Puranas and epics and songs composed by saints are the voice of the scriptures for all.
CHAPTER 4. PURUSHARTHA: THE GOALS OF LIFE. By Dr. D. C. Rao.
The goals that each human being might seek to achieve in his/her life are categorized by Hindu scriptures in four groups:
Each of these goals is legitimate, and is even necessary at some stage of life. But leading a purposeful life requires skill in how one defines and pursues each goal and how one finds the right balance among competing goals of life. The first two goals, artha and kama, appeal to our instincts. They can be simply paraphrased as “making money” and “having fun,” which describes the bulk of
the activities of most human beings. But they do also have a spiritual dimension. The other two goals, dharma and moksha are explicitly spiritual in nature.
ARTHA:
Each of us is endowed with a physical body that needs food, clothing, shelter and a minimum level of physical comfort. Providing for these needs is an aspect of artha. Without that, it is impossible for anyone to pursue the loftier goals of Dharma and Moksha.
Each human being owes a debt to parents and family for protection, nourishment and support, at least in the early years of life; and each adult feels an obligation to provide these to his/her children and spouse. Thus the pursuit of Artha to meet the basic needs of the family is an essential goal of life. By extension, promoting the material prosperity of the community in which one lives is also a commendable human aspiration.
However, there are two ways in which the pursuit of Artha can come into conflict with the broader goals of life. The first is when we use deceit and exploitation to garner more wealth for ourselves and our families, at the expense of the well-being of others. The second is when we fail to distinguish between “need” and “want,” leading to limitless greedy acquisition and an obsessive pursuit of wealth at the expense of other aspects of a fulfilling life. Recognizing this as a common human failing, scriptures advise a practice of charity as an antidote to an excessive focus on artha
KAMA:
The force of desire is one of the deepest forces in nature and has fundamental cosmic significance in Hindu scriptures. Desire is the very source of the creative urge that led to creation of the world and is a prerequisite to the acquisition of knowledge and the motivation to act.
The most basic form of desire in all living beings is the urge to survive, which inspires remarkable feats of courage and endurance. One aspect of the urge to survive is the urge to procreate. In animals, desire ( Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 5.2.2 )
“Desire entered the One in the beginning; it was the earliest seed…” (Rg Veda 10.129.4)
Kama is mostly expressed as instinct — preferring certain foods, the tendency to live in groups, the marking of territory, mating habits etc. In human beings, the force of desire finds more varied expression. Most commonly, it is seeking pleasure by indulging the senses of sound, touch, sight, taste and smell. The scope of such sensory pleasures is vastly greater in human beings than in animals, and is ever expanding. In addition, human beings entertain subtler forms of desire such as ambition for fame and power, a thirst for knowledge and the drive to master nature. The Upanishads have classified human desire into three broad groups: the desire for wealth, the desire for progeny and the desire to be loved and respected by others.
These categories encompass both artha and kama. More generally, all these desires may be seen as deriving from a desire to be happy. The issue is whether the pursuit of artha and kama alone is likely to lead to a fulfilling life characterized by happiness and peace of mind. From this perspective, the scriptures contain strong cautionary remarks.
First, the actions in pursuit of artha and kama must always be in consonance with the principles of dharma, the third goal listed above. When actions violate dharma, the karmic consequences of such wrong actions will inevitably bring unhappiness and agitation in this or in future lives.
Second, the scriptures point out that as long as one seeks happiness in external sources – sensory pleasure, acquisition of objects and building relationships with others – happiness is bound to be ephemeral. Lasting happiness can only be based on sound spiritual practices designed to lead to the fourth goal,
moksha.
DHARMA:
is traditionally stated first in the list of goals, to emphasize that dharma should be the ethical foundation for all aspects of life, including the pursuit of artha
and kama. The root meaning of dharma is “to sustain or nourish.” A practical interpretation of dharma is:
Dharma is not simply a set of laws; it is a highly nuanced set of guidelines whose application requires individual discretion based on one’s particular role and the context of a specific situation. The challenge for human beings is to discern their dharma and develop the mental discipline to live by it. Scriptures provide some guidance by explaining the right dharma for those at different stages of life: student, householder, retired and renunciate.
Another technique used in the scriptures is to define the dharma appropriate to different human temperaments. When each person fulfills the dharma appropriate to his or her individual temperament, stage of life and role in society, the collective impact is best for the stability and prosperity of society as a whole. Although there is voluminous literature on dharma, it is generally agreed that there are three guiding principles that are most important in guiding actions on the path of dharma.
“The contact of senses with objects which cause heat and cold, pleasure and pain, have a beginning and an end; they are impermanent…” (Bhagavad Gita 2.14)
MOKSHA:
Moksha is liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth known as samsara. Those whose lives are consumed by the pursuit of artha and kama gradually come to realize that their lives are an endless struggle. Driven by likes and dislikes, they lurch between happiness and sorrow, faintly aware that life might have greater meaning and purpose.
The pursuit of moksha involves study, reflection and practice of a variety of ways to realize the full potential of being a human being. Those who seek moksha work to transform their minds so that they become aware of the Divine’s presence everywhere at all times in themselves, in every other human being, in the whole of creation. Such a person rises above sorrows and spreads peace and joy.
All four goals — dharma, artha, kama and moksha have a place in life. Human beings can realize their full potential only when dharma is the foundation of their lives and moksha the culmination. The relationship among the four goals is dramatically illustrated in the ancient Swastika Symbol: the bottom left and top right arms of the swastika represent artha and kama, which plateau in the extent to which they confer happiness. The bottom right and top left arms represent dharma and moksha, whose benefits are unlimited. The pursuit of dharma and moksha pays far greater dividends in the long run than the pursuit of artha and kama
CHAPTER 5. MOKSHA by Dr. D.C. Rao
Moksha means liberation. It is a common belief that by doing good deeds, we will find our reward in heaven after death. But Moksha is a more fundamental liberation that the Hindu scriptures guide us to.
Moksha is liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth known as samsara. Samsara, more broadly, is the world of change that we live in. Our fundamental experiences in life have to do with birth, death, aging and sickness. In our daily lives we oscillate between pain and pleasure, joy and sorrow, success and failure, gain and loss, victory and defeat, honor and insult.
In dealing with objects and other people, we classify them into those we like and those we don’t. We seek out those we like and try to avoid those we do not like; and are happy when we succeed but unhappy when we fail. More often than not, we are unhappy with our circumstances and our lives are laden with regret about the past and anxiety about the future. That is why ancient sages characterized samsara as an ocean of sorrow. Crossing this ocean signifies moksha.
This ocean of samsara does not end with death. Although our physical bodies cease to exist at death, we live on in a subtle body and are reborn again and again until we achieve moksha.
What drives this process of rebirth? It is the cycle that connects our bodies and minds with our actions (10). The law of Karma requires that we experience the consequences of each action that we undertake. We need a body to experience life and a body inevitably engages in action. Thus our past actions are the cause of our present body; and our actions in this body are the cause of our future births in another body. (11)
This cycle keeps us mired in samsara until we attain moksha. But how is moksha to be attained? Hindu scriptures treat this topic in many different ways. For a start, they lead us beyond the simple belief that by doing good deeds we will find our reward in heaven after death. Scriptures have elaborate descriptions of Svarga, or heaven, but caution that heaven is a temporary sojourn after which we return to another birth in the world, in
samsara.
Our stay in heaven lasts only as long as is warranted by the stock of merit earned by our good actions. (12)
The Upanishads declare that those who rely on good works, charity and austerity take the “path of smoke” after death to the divine realm of the
devas; and, when their merit is (10)
See Brihadranyaka Upanishad 3.2.13 and Shankaracharya’s commentary. Having examined various causes of rebirth, the choice is the connection between the body and action. To quote Bhagavad Gita 9.21 :
“exhausted, they return to take birth on earth again.”
While the promise of joys in heaven might make more tolerable the miseries of samsara , temporary relief cannot be counted as moksha. Most Hindus see
moksha as resulting from the grace of God who responds to our efforts to purify our minds and cultivate exclusive devotion to God. The scriptures present a variety of descriptions of this process. The Upanishads speak of the “path of fire” open to those who have purified their minds by the pursuit of knowledge and meditation on the Supreme Truth.
This path leads to Brahmaloka, the realm of Brahma, the Creator, where they dwell until the creation itself is dissolved into Pure Consciousness at the end of each cycle of creation. At that point they too are merged into Pure Consciousness, never to be born again. This process is known as Krama Mukti, or liberation by stages.
A more direct path to moksha is described in the Bhagavad Gita rebirth where Lord Krishna declares that those who attain His abode are not subject to. (15)
This goal is achieved by those who have overcome attachments, and dedicate all their actions to God with an unwavering devotion. (16)
Here moksha means living eternally in service to God in his realm.
A radically different view of moksha is found in Upanishadic texts: a person with the right understanding is liberated here and now, not having to wait until death and after-life. The understanding we need is that we are all, in essence, eternal and blissful. Our own nature, which the scriptures call Atman, is no different from Brahman, Pure Consciousness, that pervades the whole universe.
As Atman, we are complete, lacking nothing. But because we fail to realize this and identify instead with our bodies and minds, we think of ourselves as mortal, limited individuals and struggle to find happiness in the world outside rather than claim the happiness that is part of our own being. It is these struggles of ours that give rise to samsara, the ocean of sorrow. By constant awareness that we are Atman, by dropping our false identification with our mortal body, by overcoming our desires for worldly pleasures and developing a sense of equanimity in the face of hardship or loss, we achieve liberation from
samsara.
. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad declares: “he, having been mortal, becomes immortal, and attains Brahman in this very body.” (17)
Such a person is said to be a jivanmukta, liberated while living. The equivalent of a jivanmukta is portrayed in the Bhagavad Gita as one of steady wisdom (18): a true devotee of God (19) and one who has transcended the qualities that constitute bondage. (20)
Many scriptures contain vivid portraits of the jivanmukta.
In summary: The jivanmukta has a sense of completeness, identifying with the universal Consciousness; and therefore, has overcome all desires. Seeing the One in all diverse forms, he has no attachments to one form rather than the other. He sees beyond all divisions such as those based on race, creed, caste or gender. All his actions are for the wellbeing of all others.
Since he has no special attachment to his own body or possessions, the jivanmukta is completely fearless, with no anxiety about the future. Seeing all happenings as the play of the universal Consciousness, he is ever unperturbed in the midst of extreme turbulence. He lives a life of complete freedom, free of pain and sorrow.
Constantly aware that his own Self, the Atman, is no different from universal Pure Consciousness, Brahman, the jivanmukta is ever blissful, seeing joy in all aspects of God’s creation.
Does liberation from samsara mean that a jivanmukta can no longer participate actively in life and is condemned to a passive existence? Not at all. Such a person sees the world as it is, not through the lens of petty likes, dislikes, ambitions, regrets and anxieties; and is better able to savor the joy in the wondrous diversity of this creation. A jivanmukta who chooses to be active has an intuitive understanding of what is best for the wellbeing of all and can bring undistracted energy to the task at hand.
Isn’t the search for moksha a selfish endeavor? Should not the jivanmukt
a “ reject” moksha as long as there are others who are still suffering in
samsara?
The jivanmukta knows that moksha is no more than our remembering our true nature and is available to all without exception. It is not something to be “attained”, any more than we need to “acquire” a vast treasure buried in our own homes.
Moksha is not something that can be “given” by one to another. The enlightened jivanmukta helps those still suffering in samsara in two ways: first, by his own example, the jivanmukta is living proof that moksha is available to all who truly desire it. Second, the jivanmukta can share his or her experience with those who are prepared to listen and guide those who are eager to change. The scriptures bemoan the fact that few actually listen and seek change. (21)
Why? That is the puzzle that makes the world go round! (21) Yoga Vasishtha Sara Sangraha 6.11; condensed by Swami Tejomayananda, CCMT,
Mumbai: (
18 )
References.
13 Brihadranyaka Upanishad 6.2.16;
see also Bhagavad Gita 8.25.
14 Brihadranyaka Upanishad 6.2.15; and Bhagavad Gita 8.24.
15 Bhagavad Gita 8.21; also 4.9, 8.16 and 14.20.
16 Bhagavad Gita 9.34, 11.55.
17 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.7
18 Bhagavad Gita 2.55-72;
19 Bhagavad Gita 12.13-20;
20 Bhagavad Gita 14.22-26
CHAPTER 6. DHARMA, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
Dharma is commonly understood to mean code of conduct, righteousness or law. But these interpretations are partial. As dharma is a central concept not only in Hinduism but also in other religions that originated in India, it is worth enquiring more closely into its meaning. Dharma provides the ethical foundation for all aspects of life, not only spiritual, and guides conduct by providing criteria for making good choices in all that we do. Indeed, Hinduism itself is properly known as Sanatana Dharma , the Eternal Dharma. This note explains what dharma is and illustrates how widely the concept is applied in Hindu scriptures to guide life choices. The Sanskrit word dharma has no equivalent in English, which makes this concept more than usually difficult to explain.
Dharma has the Sanskrit root dhr i , which means “that which upholds or sustains” or “that without which nothing can stand” or “that which maintains the stability and harmony of the universe.” From these root meanings tradition derives several interpretations. One interpretation of dharma is:
Dharma can also be seen as defining our essential nature. Just as the dharma of sugar is to be sweet and the dharma of fire is to burn, each of us has an essential nature that is our dharma. The challenge we face as human beings is to discern our dharma and live by it. Dharma is not simply a set of laws; it is a highly nuanced set of guidelines whose application requires individual discretion based on one’s particular role and the context of a specific situation.
Much of Hindu religious literature is aimed at conveying a nuanced understanding of dharma through teachings, stories and dialogues on what constitutes appropriate actions and responses in a variety of real-life situations. Some tenets of dharma have wide or even universal applicability. An example is the Golden Rule: “This is the sum of duty: do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you.” (22)
But to a large extent, the practice of dharma requires the cultivation of the right qualities and mental discipline to make the right choices appropriate to the situation. Giving guidance on these matters is a major goal of a class of Hindu scriptures known as Smriti, to distinguish them from the revealed scriptures such as the Vedas that are known as Shruti.
Whereas Shruti deals with universal truths, Smriti deals with relative truths that are subject to change in response to variations in time and place (19)
( The Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva, Section CXIII, verse 8; Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1993; vol IV pg. 235)
A subset of the Smriti literature are texts that deal specifically with Dharma, explaining in detail what constitutes right or wrong action in defined circumstances. Many texts provide checklists of qualities to be cultivated in support of dharma (24)
. An authoritative source, the Manu Smriti lists
The two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are rich sources of wisdom on dharma, providing exemplars of noble behavior such as -
The Mahabharata illustrates how those who oppose dharma can be highly successful and prosper for a while but definitely come to a bad end (26).
. From all this voluminous literature on dharma, it is generally agreed that there are three guiding principles that are most important in guiding our actions on the path of dharma.
A relatively simple approach to dharma is to consider the need to discharge our debts. Hindu scriptures identify four categories of debt owed by all humans and fulfilling these obligations can be seen as a basic requirement of a dharmic
life (27)
Debt to God , the One who creates and sustains the universe. This debt is discharged by maintaining an awareness of God through prayer and worship; and ensuring that we act in harmony with cosmic forces in sustaining creation.
Debt to the sages who have preserved ancient wisdom and whose teachings guide us in every aspect of our lives. Study and practice of the scriptures is how we discharge this obligation.
Debt to our parents who have begotten and cared for us. Respecting our parents, preserving their memory and bringing up our children to be good human beings is our obligation to them.
Debt to society, the social environment in which we live. Caring for all living beings with whom we share this world, and supporting the provision of social services are some of the ways in which we meet this fourth obligation.
It is important to note that dharma defines an approach to right action; it does not classify a specific action as right or wrong independent of the circumstances. If the action sustains, it is dharmic ; if it disrupts, it is not dharmic . An action that might be dharmic in some circumstances might not be dharmic in other circumstances. This principle can be illustrated with reference to the physical body. The body is one of the primary means of achieving any goal in life, so actions that help sustain the health of the body are dharmic, such as eating, sleeping, bathing, exercising etc. But if a person is sick, these same actions may hurt rather than sustain the body’s health. When a person is sick, dharma is then defined as rest, fasting, medication etc.
Thus the practice of dharma does not specify a list of “do’s” and “don’ts”, but
requires the exercise of discrimination and attention to the particularity of each situation. The same approach to the definition of dharma can be applied at the mental and emotional levels. The highest dharma is non-injury at the physical level as well as in speech and thought.
But surgeons need to cut the patient’s body in order to heal it. Similarly, even war may be dharmic if all attempts fail to solve a major social problem without violence. Shrinking from such a war when strong disruptive forces are at work may create problems for society more severe than the violent consequences of war. It all depends on the motivation and whether sincere efforts have been made to minimize the hurt caused by our actions.
Recognizing the contextual nature of dharma, scriptures discuss dharma that is appropriate at different stages of one’s life. A typical life span may be viewed in four stages following childhood.
The first stage is that of brahmacharya, which is the equivalent of being a student; the appropriate dharma for a student is to excel at acquiring knowledge.
The second stage is grihastha which means ‘householder,’ when an adult goes to work and raises a family; the appropriate dharma at this stage is to care for the family and meet obligations to society.
The third stage is vanaprastha which means ‘forest dweller’ and may be viewed as equivalent of a retired person; the appropriate dharma at this stage of life is to allow the next generation to take charge of affairs, reflect on the deeper issues of life and engage in spiritual practice.
The final stage, which does not apply to all persons, might be sanyasa which means complete renunciation of worldly attachments; such a person is wholly devoted to spiritual evolution. (
21)
Another technique used in the scriptures is to define the dharma appropriate to different human temperaments. In any society there are some persons who are intellectuals; others are focused on exercising power and leadership; others are engaged in productive occupations and amassing wealth; and many have no special calling, content to function as workers and followers in society. Based on these four temperaments, Hindu scriptures have traditionally defined four varnas and assign tasks and responsibilities to each varna so that all people contribute to society in ways for which they are best qualified:
When each person fulfills the dharma appropriate to his or her individual temperament, the collective impact is best for the stability and prosperity of society as a whole. Recalling that dharma is one’s own essential nature, enquiring deeply into our own essential nature as human beings is an important aspect of the pursuit of dharma.
This is the subject matter of the Upanishads , and is given practical direction in
yoga philosophy. A life lived according to dharma is an essential preparation for spiritual practice leading to Self-Realization.
28
Note: There are numerous texts that address the topic of Dharma.
Two recommended texts:
1. Hindu Dharma, The Universal Way of Life, by Pujyasri Chandrasekharendra Sarasvati Svami, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996; ISBN 81-7276-055-8. 828 pages. This book is an extensive treatise by a traditional authority.
2. Dharma: The Global Ethic, by Justice M. Rama Jois; ebook: www.vhp-america.org is a contemporary text drawing on traditional sources including the Mahabharata.
References.
(23)
“When there is conflict between Shruti, Smriti and the Puranas, Shruti should be taken as the authority.” Vyasa Smriti (1-V-4).
Further, when a law is offensive it must be rejected. (Manu Smriti 4.176).
(24 ) For one such list of 26 qualities, see Bhagavad Gita 16.1-3.
(25) Manu Smriti X.63
(26) Manu Smriti IV.174
(27) The Mahabharata, Adi Parva, Section CXX; Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1993; vol I pg. 250
(28) See the author’s note on Spiritual Practice.
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2. GOAL AND PATHS OF HINDUISM: AN OVERVIEW
Chapter 3. THE SCOPE OF SCRIPTURES
Chapter 4. PURUSHARTHA: THE GOALS OF LIFE
Chapter 5. MOKSHA: LIBERATION
Chapter 6. DHARMA
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, By Dr. D.C. Rao.
Hinduism elicits opposing reactions. It is admired by many as an ancient philosophy with a soaring vision of cosmic unity and an unreserved respect for other religions. But others regard Hinduism as an ethnic religion that is complex, full of contradictions, and riven by superstition and caste divisions. Despite scores of introductory books on Hinduism and decades of closer contact with the West as the number of Hindus in North America and Europe has grown to five million a coherent understanding of Hinduism is yet to emerge. Promoting such an understanding is the aim of these brief essays. The essays are addressed to the critical reader who seeks an authentic resolution of the opposing views of Hinduism. The goal is that the reader acquires a clear understanding of Hinduism’s fundamental concepts which help explain its beliefs and practices.
Hinduism’s core philosophy is that the entire creation emerged from, rests in, and will dissolve into the One Source of all Being and that, by experiencing the connection with the Source, anyone can be free of sorrow. This experience is extremely subtle and beyond the reach of our mind and senses. Realizing this truth requires a direct, intuitive personal experience - the result of spiritual practice unique to the needs of each individual. Therefore, Hinduism offers a very wide range of practices to choose from and the individual spiritual aspirant is guided by a spiritual master, a guru.
Once this core structure is understood, it becomes clear that contemporary accounts of Hinduism that present the religion merely as a catalog of beliefs with a bewildering array of practices are misleading. And those who study Hinduism only through its texts or by observing external practices will likely miss its essential integrity and be distracted by the details of its numerous philosophical doctrines and spiritual practices. Instead, a more open-minded study with teachers in the tradition will reveal that Hinduism has an inspiringly coherent vision; and the variety of practices bring seekers of diverse temperaments to the same goal, each in their own way. Accessing this core reveals Hinduism’s stunning simplicity.
The barriers posed by Hinduism’s apparent complexity are compounded when Hinduism is seen through the lens of other organized religions. There are many ways in which Hinduism differs on features that are familiar to practitioners of other religions :
- Most religions have a single scripture that defines their belief systems; Hinduism’s teachings are to be found in a range of scriptures with varying levels of authority.
- Most religions have a founder and narratives about the religion are built around the life of the founding prophet. Hinduism’s teachings are composed by a number of anonymous sages a very long time ago and have been modified to suit changing times over millennia.
- Most religions conceive of God as a person, a remote Father figure who is separate from the world. Hinduism conceives of God as Pure Consciousness that is present everywhere, at all times in us, in every other human being, in the whole of creation. In Hinduism, the One God, all-knowing and all-powerful, is worshipped in many forms, giving rise to the misconception that Hinduism is polytheistic.
- Most religions define the reward for spiritual practice as enjoying eternal life in Heaven. The ultimate goal in Hinduism is moksha, liberation, which is defined quite differently.
- Most religions define a doctrine that must be accepted by all adherents. Hindu scriptures emphasize direct personal experience of a transcendental truth rather than adherence to a single doctrine.
- Most religions have lists of commandments that govern personal ethics and social responsibility. Hinduism’s ethical foundation is Dharma, a nuanced set of contextual guidelines for behavior that vary according to a person’s temperament, stage of life and role in society rather than a set of rigid rules.
- Most religions worship in congregations with regularly scheduled worship. Hindu worship takes place primarily at home with temples playing an important but secondary role to private practice.
- Most religions emphasize social action in community. Hinduism stresses the need for personal spiritual evolution as required for building a healthy community.
- Most religions claim that their understanding of the Truth is somehow special, providing a unique path to salvation. Hindu scriptures focus on seeking the eternal, changeless Truth, but do not claim to have found an exclusive path to Truth. Hindus respect the spiritual paths defined by other religions.
- Most religions seek to gain converts to their faith. Hindus do not seek converts, but remain open to accepting all those who wish to embrace Hinduism. Furthermore, Hinduism has some special features that are unique or shared only with other Indic faith traditions. Inadequate understanding of these unfamiliar concepts is a source of misconceptions about Hinduism. Understanding these concepts on their own terms is important in gaining an authentic understanding of Hinduism as a whole.
- The Hindu spiritual journey extends over many lives in both human and other bodies. There is a complex relationship between rebirth and spiritual growth, with each
- The language of the scriptures is Sanskrit, hard to translate and rich in metaphors that are often difficult to decipher. Direct access to Sanskrit and to a rich oral tradition of interpretation are vital to gain a thorough understanding of Hindu scriptures.
- Spiritual practice in Hinduism is about transforming the mind and being aware of God’s presence at all times. It offers a variety of paths for practice, known as Yoga, suited to seekers of different temperaments. Denominations within Hinduism differ widely in their beliefs and practices, but each one respects the spiritual paths used by others.
- Hindus use murtis, physical representations of God, as a means of focusing the mind in ardent devotion during worship. Some mistake this use of physical images to be idolatry. However, the murti is not an independent source of power or divinity.
- Hindu spiritual enquiry uses scientific method based on personal experience consistent with reason and the scriptures. While going beyond the material sciences it is ready to embrace the findings of science.
- Hindu tradition treats time as cyclical and ideas as timeless; this can be frustrating to the Western emphasis on historicity.
Hinduism posits an intimate relationship between the cosmos and the individual that is alien to conventional Western ideas. This world-view has profound implications for spiritual practice. Western attempts to describe Hinduism without sensitivity to these differences have led to deeply ingrained misconceptions. Hinduism is wrongly described as polytheistic and as worshipping idols.
The social phenomenon of caste is confused with the scriptural concept of varna or temperament, leading to the incorrect conclusion that the caste system is a central feature of Hinduism.
These and other misconceptions have dominated teaching about Hinduism and, therefore, public understanding. Such misunderstanding cannot be remedied by merely conveying information about beliefs and practices of Hinduism. More information does not change the way people might think about Hinduism when they come to the topic with a preconceived framework. Modifying the framework requires going deeper in explaining the rationale and principles that guide religious practices. It is only by going deeper that one becomes aware of the unified vision that underlies the astonishing diversity of practices among the various denominations within Hinduism. Without this, it is hard to gain a better understanding of Hinduism as a whole.
Addressing this formidable challenge is the task of this set of essays. Each essay seeks to promote understanding of a significant concept or practice in Hinduism, showing how they are connected with fundamental ideas at the core of Hindu philosophy. Each essay is intentionally brief and largely self-contained so readers can go directly to topics that interest them. Together, the essays deal with a range of topics necessary to gain a better understanding of Hinduism. (5 )
CHAPTER 2. THE GOAL AND PATHS OF HINDUISM : AN OVERVIEW by Dr. D.C. Rao
Everybody without exception seeks happiness. Other goals such as money, power, and reputation are all desired because we think they will make us happy. Although we all seek happiness, we often fail. Is failure unavoidable? Is there a way to rise above the roller-coaster of life and experience happiness at all times? One way to understand Hinduism is as a positive answer to these questions.
Hindu scriptures assert that there is an eternal, unchanging Consciousness that pervades the entire universe and that anyone can gain limitless bliss by connecting with that Divinity. This is called moksha.
If blissful Consciousness is all-pervasive, each of us must necessarily dwell in it. Then why do we feel miserable? Hindu sages answer that it is because we forget who we really are and how we relate to Divine Consciousness. When our minds are clear and calm, we automatically become aware of our true nature, which is blissful. One way to understand Hindu spiritual practice is as transforming our minds so that we become aware of our connection with Divine Consciousness and reclaim our blissful nature, attaining moksha
. The Hindu spiritual journey is a journey of the mind – from being agitated in the pursuit of material goals ( artha ) and sense pleasures (kama) to a state of perfect tranquility. A mind that is clear and calm is no longer an impediment to the enjoyment of Divine bliss. What are the steps in this spiritual journey?
The first step is to discipline the desire for material possessions and sense pleasures. This is done by firm adherence to dharma, the ethical foundation that is elaborately explained in Hindu scriptures. By performing one’s duty and cultivating qualities such as honesty, self-discipline, love and compassion, the mind becomes less agitated by base emotions such as greed, anger and lust.
The second step in the Hindu spiritual journey is dedication to selfless service, undertaking all actions without focus on personal gain. This is known as
karma yoga . Practice of karma yoga softens the personal ego by discovering the joy to be found in serving others and working as an instrument of God. Beyond this point on the spiritual journey, the Hindu spiritual path has several branches. Recognizing that spiritual seekers differ greatly in personal temperament, physical and mental abilities and preferences, scriptures offer a variety of ways in which the mind can be further refined and made ready for the practice of meditation and gaining spiritual enlightenment.
One possible path is Raja Yoga that trains the mind to meditate using exercises of the body, breath and mind. This path is good for those who have good health and a lot of discipline.
(See the opening verse of the ancient text Sankhya Karika by Ishvarakrishna.)
Another path is Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge, which involves deep study of the Upanishads and related scriptures to understand who we are and how we relate to the world and to God. This path is good for those who have sharp minds and intellectual stamina for years of study and practice of philosophy.
Another path is Bhakti Yoga, the path of devotion, where the seeker is asked to rest his or her mind and heart in God. Unlike other paths, the path of
Bhakti Yoga is free of prerequisites but it is by no means “easy” to develop a deep and abiding personal devotion to God. Hindu scriptures offer ways to facilitate this by encouraging worship of God in specific forms with whom the seeker can form a close personal relationship. This is often misrepresented as polytheism and worship of “idols.”
Hindu scriptures are replete with techniques and practices that can help refine the mind and overcome deep-seated mental habits that block spiritual progress. The spiritual journey might take very many lifetimes. Each life begins where the previous life left off and, depending on one’s actions, may take one closer to or further away from the goal of moksha. But in the end, liberation is assured for all, as there is no permanent resting place other than in one’s own Divine nature. Far from being mutually exclusive, the various paths of yoga
are strongly complementary.
Karma Yoga is recognized as powerful in purifying the mind and a necessary foundation for all spiritual practice. A deep practice of the path of knowledge leads to the flowering of devotion; and the deep practice of the path of devotion leads to the emergence of knowledge.
All these paths culminate in a mind that is clear and calm, aware of the Divine’s presence everywhere at all times in oneself, in every other human being, and in the whole of creation. Such a person rises above sorrows and spreads peace and joy to others.
CHAPTER 3 THE SCOPE OF SCRIPTURES, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
Hinduism is defined by a search for the universal and timeless Truth and specific guidance on how to connect with a Supreme Being that is beyond comprehension by the human mind. The direct experience of numerous sages is recorded in scriptures that unfold a variety of paths to the
Truth. Thus, “Scripture” in Hinduism refers to a large body of literature rather than a single text. Since spiritual seekers have varying levels of understanding, scriptural messages are presented in a variety of ways to provide direct access to all seekers. The scriptures inspire and support the efforts of all seekers to evolve spiritually. Thus while some scriptures emphasize philosophy, others are replete with stories, while yet others emphasize techniques for spiritual practice.
Besides dealing with the transcendental, the scriptures’ emphasis on integrating spiritual practice with daily life leads to their reflections on morals, sciences, and the arts. Not surprisingly, Hindus revere and study numerous texts as scripture. Hindu scriptures are classified broadly into two categories:
Shruti and Smriti. The word Shruti literally means “heard,” and consists of truths that ancient sages realized in their meditation. For many centuries they were transmitted orally, which is another reason why they are known as
“heard.” The term Shruti is applied to the Vedas, including the Upanishads that constitute the fourth and final part of the Vedas.
These texts are revered as “revealed” and are the foundation of all of Hinduism. Rigorous disciplines were devised for chanting of the Shruti texts to ensure their accurate preservation in the oral tradition. The second category of scripture is Smriti that literally means “memory,” i.e. texts that are designed to help us “remember” the teachings of Shruti.
Other than Vedas and Upanishads, all scriptural texts are loosely classified as
Smriti. Teachings in Smriti texts are meant to be read and interpreted in the light of changing circumstances over time. The specific statements in Smriti texts do not carry the same weight as Shruti.
Any conflict in teachings between Smriti and Shruti is to be resolved in favor of
Shruti.(3)
While there is general agreement that the Vedas are over three thousand years old, there is little agreement on just how old they are. Evidence is scarce and estimates of their age vary widely, from 1200 bce to some thousands of years earlier. Similar disagreements are found on dating other ancient scriptures, which were preserved orally for a long time before they were written. The Vedas and Upanishads are composed in an ancient form of Sanskrit; the Puranas and most of the other older scriptures are in classical Sanskrit; and texts composed in the last millennium are sometimes in the various regional languages.
Ref 3 See Manu Smriti 4.176 and Vyasa Smriti 1-V-4.
Vedas. The word veda means “knowledge.” There are four Vedas:
Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva, of which the Rig (Rk, Rg) Veda is the oldest. It has over 10,000 mantras that deal with a wide range of topics. Superficially, they are seen as hymns to the forces of nature and liturgy for ceremonial rituals; but a deeper study reveals teachings on metaphysical and philosophical issues.
Upanishads contain extensive exploration of transcendental truths and methods of Self-Realization. There are more than a hundred Upanishads of which between ten and fourteen are regarded as major. No individuals claim to have authored the Upanishads.
Although there are differences in detail among the Upanishads, their hilosophical content is remarkably consistent and forms the basis of Vedanta.
The Upanishads, along with the Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras , constitute the primary basis for the practice of Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge.
Vedangas There are a number of auxiliary texts known collectively as Vedanga and classified as Smriti.
They cover a range of topics:
- oral chanting of scripture ( Shiksha),
- grammar (vyakarana),
- prosody ( chhandas),
- etymology ( nirukta),
- astronomy ( jyotisha),
- and obligatory rituals (kalpa).
Puranas. These are stories.. They bridge the gap between the ancient Shruti scriptures and common people.
The teachings in the Puranas are completely in harmony with the teachings of the Vedas and Upanishads but are greatly simplified and made more interesting. There are eighteen major Puranas and many minor ones that have compiled stories and narratives over many centuries, mainly during the first millennium CE.
Each Purana tells stories around a principal character, either a God or a Sage. They cover a wide range of topics, both sacred and secular such as
- the manifestations of God, including the avatars i.e. the forms in which God has appeared on earth,
- teachings on dharma, karma, death and rebirth,
- the use of mantras and other religious observances,
- the significance of sacred sites for pilgrimages,
- the importance of service,
- genealogies of kings and sages, cosmology,
- ayurveda and astrology.
Modern Hindu beliefs and religious practices are derived mainly from the
Puranas.
Many consider Srimad Bhagavatam as being the most important Purana.
It deals with the many avatars of Vishnu and provides a philosophical basis for the Vaishnava devotional traditions in Hinduism, particularly those centering on the worship of Lord Krishna.
Puranas contain two of the more important scriptures in the Shakti tradition: the Durga Saptashati, also known as Devi Mahatmyam, extols the Divine Mother’s victories over evil forces; and Lalita Sahasranama , the thousand names of the Divine Mother, provides an esoteric understanding of the Supreme Being in Her feminine form.
Ramayana is the single most popular scripture in all of Hinduism and has had an enormous impact in many dimensions of life in India and parts of Southeast Asia. It is traditionally classed as an Itihasa , history, and tells the life story of a noble prince, Lord Rama, who is an avatar of Lord Vishnu. He suffers exile and many hardships while destroying powerful demons before returning to rule his kingdom for a very long time. This epic story portrays several characters who embody ideal qualities and conduct. Among them are
- Rama himself as the ideal in every
- Sita as the ideal wife and emblem of strong womanhood;
- Hanuman as the ideal friend and servant of Rama;
- Lakshmana and Bharata as devoted brothers.
There are numerous versions of the Ramayana, of which the most well-known are those by the original author, the Sage Valmiki, and the poet-saint Tulsidas. These texts are recited by devoted Hindus at home and in devotional gatherings; are consulted for guidance on life; form the basis for dances and dramatic presentations; and are popular children’s stories.
Aditya Hridaya Stotram is a popular prayer that originates in the Ramayana.
Mahabharata is also a historical epic. It is the longest text the world has known, seven times the combined length of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
Against the background of an extended conflict between two branches of the Kaurava family, the Mahabharata is a treasure house of stories and discourses on the practice of Dharma. As a scripture, its primary messages are the importance of always upholding Dharma, the need for complete devotion to God and the utter futility of war.
Embedded in the Mahabharata are two texts of special scriptural significance: the Bhagavad Gita and Vishnu Sahasranama.
The Vishnu Sahasranama, the thousand names of Lord Vishnu, is one of the most important prayers used in the Vaishnava tradition.
The Bhagavad Gita is a primary scripture for all Hindus in modern times. Although it is a tiny part of the Mahabharata and hence technically classed as a Smriti text, it is traditionally accorded the rank of an Upanishad.
It presents Lord Krishna’s teachings to the warrior Arjuna and is a profound guide to living a spiritual life while being engaged in the world. The text outlines the various paths of Yoga, summarizes Upanishadic teachings on spiritual topics and offers succinct advice on how to lead a spiritually fulfilling life.
Dharma Shastras are a class of texts that explain how Dharma is maintained in daily life. They deal in great detail with a wide range of topics:
- responsibilities of each varna, temperament, and
- ashrama, stage of life;
- rituals;
- civil and criminal law;
- dietary rules,
- injunctions on festivals,
- pilgrimages, charity, forbidden actions;
- types of sinful actions and required expiation; design of temples etc.
Since these texts are part of the Smriti, not Shruti, their teachings are subject to re-interpretation to suit differences in time and place. Hence there are numerous texts composed by various authors over many centuries. The
Manu Smriti is one of earliest texts but is still regarded as most authoritative.
Darshana Shastras are philosophical texts that are studied as part of Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge. The subject matter of these texts is the relationship between God, the individual and the phenomenal world, including theories of creation. There are six schools of philosophy in Hinduism with differing views on these subjects. Each of them has a primary text, generally in the form of Sutras, aphorisms. Two of these are still widely studied by Hindus:
- the Brahma Sutras by Sage Vyasa and
- Yoga Sutras by Sage Patanjali.
Agama Shastras are ancient and numerous, including many that have been lost over the centuries. They deal with practical aspects of
- devotion and worship, including personal and temple rituals,
- purificatory injunctions and esoteric practices such as the use of mantras, yantras and nyasas
They define many of the common practices now followed by observant Hindus in the worship of Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti, the Divine Mother.
Tantric texts are part of this category. Some texts such as Rama Raksha Stotram, Saundaryalahari, and Shiva Mahimna Stotram are popular and used widely in the worship of Rama, Shakti and Shiva respectively.
Bhakti Texts: From popular saints known as Alwars and Nayanars in the 7th
BCE into contemporary times, the teachings, poems and songs composed by many saints in regional languages have been a major source of inspiration. Their messages of devotion, dharma and spiritual practice were conveyed in simple language by innumerable teachers and singers to all parts of India and beyond. The plethora of scriptures is not as bewildering as might appear at first sight. Most Hindus receive their religious education from family traditions and discourses by spiritual leaders. Individual Hindus follow the prayers and teachings of the denomination to which they belong and possibly the more specific oral instructions of a Guru.
Few access directly the Vedas and Upanishads that provide the foundation for all other scriptures in Hinduism. The stories from the Puranas and epics and songs composed by saints are the voice of the scriptures for all.
- Mantra is a sacred word or phrase;
- Yantra is a geometric design with esoteric significance;
- nyasa invokes the presence of God in each of various parts of the body to 'divinize’ the body prior to worship.
CHAPTER 4. PURUSHARTHA: THE GOALS OF LIFE. By Dr. D. C. Rao.
The goals that each human being might seek to achieve in his/her life are categorized by Hindu scriptures in four groups:
- ARTHA: the pursuit of material security and prosperity;
- KAMA (pronounced kaama): fulfill desire
- DHARMA: doing the right thing in keeping with one’s own essential nature; seeking to sustain, protect, nourish the environment in which one lives;
- MOKSHA: liberation from the cycle of birth and death; freedom from sorrow.
Each of these goals is legitimate, and is even necessary at some stage of life. But leading a purposeful life requires skill in how one defines and pursues each goal and how one finds the right balance among competing goals of life. The first two goals, artha and kama, appeal to our instincts. They can be simply paraphrased as “making money” and “having fun,” which describes the bulk of
the activities of most human beings. But they do also have a spiritual dimension. The other two goals, dharma and moksha are explicitly spiritual in nature.
ARTHA:
Each of us is endowed with a physical body that needs food, clothing, shelter and a minimum level of physical comfort. Providing for these needs is an aspect of artha. Without that, it is impossible for anyone to pursue the loftier goals of Dharma and Moksha.
Each human being owes a debt to parents and family for protection, nourishment and support, at least in the early years of life; and each adult feels an obligation to provide these to his/her children and spouse. Thus the pursuit of Artha to meet the basic needs of the family is an essential goal of life. By extension, promoting the material prosperity of the community in which one lives is also a commendable human aspiration.
However, there are two ways in which the pursuit of Artha can come into conflict with the broader goals of life. The first is when we use deceit and exploitation to garner more wealth for ourselves and our families, at the expense of the well-being of others. The second is when we fail to distinguish between “need” and “want,” leading to limitless greedy acquisition and an obsessive pursuit of wealth at the expense of other aspects of a fulfilling life. Recognizing this as a common human failing, scriptures advise a practice of charity as an antidote to an excessive focus on artha
KAMA:
The force of desire is one of the deepest forces in nature and has fundamental cosmic significance in Hindu scriptures. Desire is the very source of the creative urge that led to creation of the world and is a prerequisite to the acquisition of knowledge and the motivation to act.
The most basic form of desire in all living beings is the urge to survive, which inspires remarkable feats of courage and endurance. One aspect of the urge to survive is the urge to procreate. In animals, desire ( Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 5.2.2 )
“Desire entered the One in the beginning; it was the earliest seed…” (Rg Veda 10.129.4)
Kama is mostly expressed as instinct — preferring certain foods, the tendency to live in groups, the marking of territory, mating habits etc. In human beings, the force of desire finds more varied expression. Most commonly, it is seeking pleasure by indulging the senses of sound, touch, sight, taste and smell. The scope of such sensory pleasures is vastly greater in human beings than in animals, and is ever expanding. In addition, human beings entertain subtler forms of desire such as ambition for fame and power, a thirst for knowledge and the drive to master nature. The Upanishads have classified human desire into three broad groups: the desire for wealth, the desire for progeny and the desire to be loved and respected by others.
These categories encompass both artha and kama. More generally, all these desires may be seen as deriving from a desire to be happy. The issue is whether the pursuit of artha and kama alone is likely to lead to a fulfilling life characterized by happiness and peace of mind. From this perspective, the scriptures contain strong cautionary remarks.
First, the actions in pursuit of artha and kama must always be in consonance with the principles of dharma, the third goal listed above. When actions violate dharma, the karmic consequences of such wrong actions will inevitably bring unhappiness and agitation in this or in future lives.
Second, the scriptures point out that as long as one seeks happiness in external sources – sensory pleasure, acquisition of objects and building relationships with others – happiness is bound to be ephemeral. Lasting happiness can only be based on sound spiritual practices designed to lead to the fourth goal,
moksha.
DHARMA:
is traditionally stated first in the list of goals, to emphasize that dharma should be the ethical foundation for all aspects of life, including the pursuit of artha
and kama. The root meaning of dharma is “to sustain or nourish.” A practical interpretation of dharma is:
- those actions that best sustain and uphold our own integrity and that of our surroundings.
Dharma is not simply a set of laws; it is a highly nuanced set of guidelines whose application requires individual discretion based on one’s particular role and the context of a specific situation. The challenge for human beings is to discern their dharma and develop the mental discipline to live by it. Scriptures provide some guidance by explaining the right dharma for those at different stages of life: student, householder, retired and renunciate.
Another technique used in the scriptures is to define the dharma appropriate to different human temperaments. When each person fulfills the dharma appropriate to his or her individual temperament, stage of life and role in society, the collective impact is best for the stability and prosperity of society as a whole. Although there is voluminous literature on dharma, it is generally agreed that there are three guiding principles that are most important in guiding actions on the path of dharma.
- Ahimsa, non-injury : avoiding violent actions, harsh words and hurtful thoughts.
- Satya, truthfulness : being truthful to oneself and to others in thought, word and deed. (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.22)
“The contact of senses with objects which cause heat and cold, pleasure and pain, have a beginning and an end; they are impermanent…” (Bhagavad Gita 2.14)
- Brahmacharya, non-indulgence : a disciplined life that abstains from sensory excess. Recalling that dharma is one’s own essential nature, enquiring deeply into our own essential nature as human beings is an important aspect of the pursuit of dharma. This aspect of dharma is known as the fourth goal, moksha.
MOKSHA:
Moksha is liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth known as samsara. Those whose lives are consumed by the pursuit of artha and kama gradually come to realize that their lives are an endless struggle. Driven by likes and dislikes, they lurch between happiness and sorrow, faintly aware that life might have greater meaning and purpose.
The pursuit of moksha involves study, reflection and practice of a variety of ways to realize the full potential of being a human being. Those who seek moksha work to transform their minds so that they become aware of the Divine’s presence everywhere at all times in themselves, in every other human being, in the whole of creation. Such a person rises above sorrows and spreads peace and joy.
All four goals — dharma, artha, kama and moksha have a place in life. Human beings can realize their full potential only when dharma is the foundation of their lives and moksha the culmination. The relationship among the four goals is dramatically illustrated in the ancient Swastika Symbol: the bottom left and top right arms of the swastika represent artha and kama, which plateau in the extent to which they confer happiness. The bottom right and top left arms represent dharma and moksha, whose benefits are unlimited. The pursuit of dharma and moksha pays far greater dividends in the long run than the pursuit of artha and kama
CHAPTER 5. MOKSHA by Dr. D.C. Rao
Moksha means liberation. It is a common belief that by doing good deeds, we will find our reward in heaven after death. But Moksha is a more fundamental liberation that the Hindu scriptures guide us to.
Moksha is liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth known as samsara. Samsara, more broadly, is the world of change that we live in. Our fundamental experiences in life have to do with birth, death, aging and sickness. In our daily lives we oscillate between pain and pleasure, joy and sorrow, success and failure, gain and loss, victory and defeat, honor and insult.
In dealing with objects and other people, we classify them into those we like and those we don’t. We seek out those we like and try to avoid those we do not like; and are happy when we succeed but unhappy when we fail. More often than not, we are unhappy with our circumstances and our lives are laden with regret about the past and anxiety about the future. That is why ancient sages characterized samsara as an ocean of sorrow. Crossing this ocean signifies moksha.
This ocean of samsara does not end with death. Although our physical bodies cease to exist at death, we live on in a subtle body and are reborn again and again until we achieve moksha.
What drives this process of rebirth? It is the cycle that connects our bodies and minds with our actions (10). The law of Karma requires that we experience the consequences of each action that we undertake. We need a body to experience life and a body inevitably engages in action. Thus our past actions are the cause of our present body; and our actions in this body are the cause of our future births in another body. (11)
This cycle keeps us mired in samsara until we attain moksha. But how is moksha to be attained? Hindu scriptures treat this topic in many different ways. For a start, they lead us beyond the simple belief that by doing good deeds we will find our reward in heaven after death. Scriptures have elaborate descriptions of Svarga, or heaven, but caution that heaven is a temporary sojourn after which we return to another birth in the world, in
samsara.
Our stay in heaven lasts only as long as is warranted by the stock of merit earned by our good actions. (12)
The Upanishads declare that those who rely on good works, charity and austerity take the “path of smoke” after death to the divine realm of the
devas; and, when their merit is (10)
See Brihadranyaka Upanishad 3.2.13 and Shankaracharya’s commentary. Having examined various causes of rebirth, the choice is the connection between the body and action. To quote Bhagavad Gita 9.21 :
“exhausted, they return to take birth on earth again.”
While the promise of joys in heaven might make more tolerable the miseries of samsara , temporary relief cannot be counted as moksha. Most Hindus see
moksha as resulting from the grace of God who responds to our efforts to purify our minds and cultivate exclusive devotion to God. The scriptures present a variety of descriptions of this process. The Upanishads speak of the “path of fire” open to those who have purified their minds by the pursuit of knowledge and meditation on the Supreme Truth.
This path leads to Brahmaloka, the realm of Brahma, the Creator, where they dwell until the creation itself is dissolved into Pure Consciousness at the end of each cycle of creation. At that point they too are merged into Pure Consciousness, never to be born again. This process is known as Krama Mukti, or liberation by stages.
A more direct path to moksha is described in the Bhagavad Gita rebirth where Lord Krishna declares that those who attain His abode are not subject to. (15)
This goal is achieved by those who have overcome attachments, and dedicate all their actions to God with an unwavering devotion. (16)
Here moksha means living eternally in service to God in his realm.
A radically different view of moksha is found in Upanishadic texts: a person with the right understanding is liberated here and now, not having to wait until death and after-life. The understanding we need is that we are all, in essence, eternal and blissful. Our own nature, which the scriptures call Atman, is no different from Brahman, Pure Consciousness, that pervades the whole universe.
As Atman, we are complete, lacking nothing. But because we fail to realize this and identify instead with our bodies and minds, we think of ourselves as mortal, limited individuals and struggle to find happiness in the world outside rather than claim the happiness that is part of our own being. It is these struggles of ours that give rise to samsara, the ocean of sorrow. By constant awareness that we are Atman, by dropping our false identification with our mortal body, by overcoming our desires for worldly pleasures and developing a sense of equanimity in the face of hardship or loss, we achieve liberation from
samsara.
. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad declares: “he, having been mortal, becomes immortal, and attains Brahman in this very body.” (17)
Such a person is said to be a jivanmukta, liberated while living. The equivalent of a jivanmukta is portrayed in the Bhagavad Gita as one of steady wisdom (18): a true devotee of God (19) and one who has transcended the qualities that constitute bondage. (20)
Many scriptures contain vivid portraits of the jivanmukta.
In summary: The jivanmukta has a sense of completeness, identifying with the universal Consciousness; and therefore, has overcome all desires. Seeing the One in all diverse forms, he has no attachments to one form rather than the other. He sees beyond all divisions such as those based on race, creed, caste or gender. All his actions are for the wellbeing of all others.
Since he has no special attachment to his own body or possessions, the jivanmukta is completely fearless, with no anxiety about the future. Seeing all happenings as the play of the universal Consciousness, he is ever unperturbed in the midst of extreme turbulence. He lives a life of complete freedom, free of pain and sorrow.
Constantly aware that his own Self, the Atman, is no different from universal Pure Consciousness, Brahman, the jivanmukta is ever blissful, seeing joy in all aspects of God’s creation.
Does liberation from samsara mean that a jivanmukta can no longer participate actively in life and is condemned to a passive existence? Not at all. Such a person sees the world as it is, not through the lens of petty likes, dislikes, ambitions, regrets and anxieties; and is better able to savor the joy in the wondrous diversity of this creation. A jivanmukta who chooses to be active has an intuitive understanding of what is best for the wellbeing of all and can bring undistracted energy to the task at hand.
Isn’t the search for moksha a selfish endeavor? Should not the jivanmukt
a “ reject” moksha as long as there are others who are still suffering in
samsara?
The jivanmukta knows that moksha is no more than our remembering our true nature and is available to all without exception. It is not something to be “attained”, any more than we need to “acquire” a vast treasure buried in our own homes.
Moksha is not something that can be “given” by one to another. The enlightened jivanmukta helps those still suffering in samsara in two ways: first, by his own example, the jivanmukta is living proof that moksha is available to all who truly desire it. Second, the jivanmukta can share his or her experience with those who are prepared to listen and guide those who are eager to change. The scriptures bemoan the fact that few actually listen and seek change. (21)
Why? That is the puzzle that makes the world go round! (21) Yoga Vasishtha Sara Sangraha 6.11; condensed by Swami Tejomayananda, CCMT,
Mumbai: (
18 )
References.
13 Brihadranyaka Upanishad 6.2.16;
see also Bhagavad Gita 8.25.
14 Brihadranyaka Upanishad 6.2.15; and Bhagavad Gita 8.24.
15 Bhagavad Gita 8.21; also 4.9, 8.16 and 14.20.
16 Bhagavad Gita 9.34, 11.55.
17 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.7
18 Bhagavad Gita 2.55-72;
19 Bhagavad Gita 12.13-20;
20 Bhagavad Gita 14.22-26
CHAPTER 6. DHARMA, by Dr. D.C. Rao.
Dharma is commonly understood to mean code of conduct, righteousness or law. But these interpretations are partial. As dharma is a central concept not only in Hinduism but also in other religions that originated in India, it is worth enquiring more closely into its meaning. Dharma provides the ethical foundation for all aspects of life, not only spiritual, and guides conduct by providing criteria for making good choices in all that we do. Indeed, Hinduism itself is properly known as Sanatana Dharma , the Eternal Dharma. This note explains what dharma is and illustrates how widely the concept is applied in Hindu scriptures to guide life choices. The Sanskrit word dharma has no equivalent in English, which makes this concept more than usually difficult to explain.
Dharma has the Sanskrit root dhr i , which means “that which upholds or sustains” or “that without which nothing can stand” or “that which maintains the stability and harmony of the universe.” From these root meanings tradition derives several interpretations. One interpretation of dharma is:
- those actions that best sustain and uphold our own integrity as human beings; the harmony of our family, communities or nations; the ecological balance of our planet; and the future of our civilization.
Dharma can also be seen as defining our essential nature. Just as the dharma of sugar is to be sweet and the dharma of fire is to burn, each of us has an essential nature that is our dharma. The challenge we face as human beings is to discern our dharma and live by it. Dharma is not simply a set of laws; it is a highly nuanced set of guidelines whose application requires individual discretion based on one’s particular role and the context of a specific situation.
Much of Hindu religious literature is aimed at conveying a nuanced understanding of dharma through teachings, stories and dialogues on what constitutes appropriate actions and responses in a variety of real-life situations. Some tenets of dharma have wide or even universal applicability. An example is the Golden Rule: “This is the sum of duty: do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you.” (22)
But to a large extent, the practice of dharma requires the cultivation of the right qualities and mental discipline to make the right choices appropriate to the situation. Giving guidance on these matters is a major goal of a class of Hindu scriptures known as Smriti, to distinguish them from the revealed scriptures such as the Vedas that are known as Shruti.
Whereas Shruti deals with universal truths, Smriti deals with relative truths that are subject to change in response to variations in time and place (19)
( The Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva, Section CXIII, verse 8; Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1993; vol IV pg. 235)
A subset of the Smriti literature are texts that deal specifically with Dharma, explaining in detail what constitutes right or wrong action in defined circumstances. Many texts provide checklists of qualities to be cultivated in support of dharma (24)
. An authoritative source, the Manu Smriti lists
- ahimsa (non-violence),
- satya (truthfulness),
- asteya (not acquiring illegitimate wealth),
- shoucham (purity),
- and indriya-nigraha (control of senses)
The two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are rich sources of wisdom on dharma, providing exemplars of noble behavior such as -
- equanimity in the face of adversity,
- obedience to parents,
- brotherly love,
- service,
- devotion to truth,
- trust in God and many more.
The Mahabharata illustrates how those who oppose dharma can be highly successful and prosper for a while but definitely come to a bad end (26).
. From all this voluminous literature on dharma, it is generally agreed that there are three guiding principles that are most important in guiding our actions on the path of dharma.
- Ahimsa, non-injury: avoiding violent actions, harsh words and malicious thoughts. Violence has its roots in ignorance, intolerance, jealousy, greed, anger and fear. Overcoming such negative emotions and cultivating an all-encompassing love and forgiveness is the goal and the means of practicing ahimsa
- Satya, truthfulness: being truthful to oneself and to others in thought, word and deed. Speaking only when necessary and adhering to promises are aspects of this practice.
- Brahmacharya, non-indulgence: abstaining from sensory excess that dissipates vital energy and causes harm to others. A common translation, celibacy, is too narrow an interpretation. All forms of sensory indulgence that drain energy, and could otherwise be used for one’s spiritual awakening. Disciplining one’s senses is therefore an essential element in living a meaningful life.
A relatively simple approach to dharma is to consider the need to discharge our debts. Hindu scriptures identify four categories of debt owed by all humans and fulfilling these obligations can be seen as a basic requirement of a dharmic
life (27)
Debt to God , the One who creates and sustains the universe. This debt is discharged by maintaining an awareness of God through prayer and worship; and ensuring that we act in harmony with cosmic forces in sustaining creation.
Debt to the sages who have preserved ancient wisdom and whose teachings guide us in every aspect of our lives. Study and practice of the scriptures is how we discharge this obligation.
Debt to our parents who have begotten and cared for us. Respecting our parents, preserving their memory and bringing up our children to be good human beings is our obligation to them.
Debt to society, the social environment in which we live. Caring for all living beings with whom we share this world, and supporting the provision of social services are some of the ways in which we meet this fourth obligation.
It is important to note that dharma defines an approach to right action; it does not classify a specific action as right or wrong independent of the circumstances. If the action sustains, it is dharmic ; if it disrupts, it is not dharmic . An action that might be dharmic in some circumstances might not be dharmic in other circumstances. This principle can be illustrated with reference to the physical body. The body is one of the primary means of achieving any goal in life, so actions that help sustain the health of the body are dharmic, such as eating, sleeping, bathing, exercising etc. But if a person is sick, these same actions may hurt rather than sustain the body’s health. When a person is sick, dharma is then defined as rest, fasting, medication etc.
Thus the practice of dharma does not specify a list of “do’s” and “don’ts”, but
requires the exercise of discrimination and attention to the particularity of each situation. The same approach to the definition of dharma can be applied at the mental and emotional levels. The highest dharma is non-injury at the physical level as well as in speech and thought.
But surgeons need to cut the patient’s body in order to heal it. Similarly, even war may be dharmic if all attempts fail to solve a major social problem without violence. Shrinking from such a war when strong disruptive forces are at work may create problems for society more severe than the violent consequences of war. It all depends on the motivation and whether sincere efforts have been made to minimize the hurt caused by our actions.
Recognizing the contextual nature of dharma, scriptures discuss dharma that is appropriate at different stages of one’s life. A typical life span may be viewed in four stages following childhood.
The first stage is that of brahmacharya, which is the equivalent of being a student; the appropriate dharma for a student is to excel at acquiring knowledge.
The second stage is grihastha which means ‘householder,’ when an adult goes to work and raises a family; the appropriate dharma at this stage is to care for the family and meet obligations to society.
The third stage is vanaprastha which means ‘forest dweller’ and may be viewed as equivalent of a retired person; the appropriate dharma at this stage of life is to allow the next generation to take charge of affairs, reflect on the deeper issues of life and engage in spiritual practice.
The final stage, which does not apply to all persons, might be sanyasa which means complete renunciation of worldly attachments; such a person is wholly devoted to spiritual evolution. (
21)
Another technique used in the scriptures is to define the dharma appropriate to different human temperaments. In any society there are some persons who are intellectuals; others are focused on exercising power and leadership; others are engaged in productive occupations and amassing wealth; and many have no special calling, content to function as workers and followers in society. Based on these four temperaments, Hindu scriptures have traditionally defined four varnas and assign tasks and responsibilities to each varna so that all people contribute to society in ways for which they are best qualified:
- the Brahmana functions as the priest or intellectual and is required to preserve knowledge of the scriptures by studying and teaching them;
- the Kshatriya is a ruler of society and is required to use his power to maintain social order and especially to protect the weak;
- the Vaisya is the trader or businessman and is required to support society by funding the state treasury and building social infrastructure;
- the Sudra is required to serve his employers loyally.
When each person fulfills the dharma appropriate to his or her individual temperament, the collective impact is best for the stability and prosperity of society as a whole. Recalling that dharma is one’s own essential nature, enquiring deeply into our own essential nature as human beings is an important aspect of the pursuit of dharma.
This is the subject matter of the Upanishads , and is given practical direction in
yoga philosophy. A life lived according to dharma is an essential preparation for spiritual practice leading to Self-Realization.
28
Note: There are numerous texts that address the topic of Dharma.
Two recommended texts:
1. Hindu Dharma, The Universal Way of Life, by Pujyasri Chandrasekharendra Sarasvati Svami, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996; ISBN 81-7276-055-8. 828 pages. This book is an extensive treatise by a traditional authority.
2. Dharma: The Global Ethic, by Justice M. Rama Jois; ebook: www.vhp-america.org is a contemporary text drawing on traditional sources including the Mahabharata.
References.
(23)
“When there is conflict between Shruti, Smriti and the Puranas, Shruti should be taken as the authority.” Vyasa Smriti (1-V-4).
Further, when a law is offensive it must be rejected. (Manu Smriti 4.176).
(24 ) For one such list of 26 qualities, see Bhagavad Gita 16.1-3.
(25) Manu Smriti X.63
(26) Manu Smriti IV.174
(27) The Mahabharata, Adi Parva, Section CXX; Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1993; vol I pg. 250
(28) See the author’s note on Spiritual Practice.
